Second of Three Parts<\/b><\/p>\n
John J. Davis<\/b><\/p>\n
The excavation of burials, once they are located, can be the fulfillment of archaeologists\u2019 dreams, but locating ancient burials is, more often than not, their worst nightmare.<\/p>\n
Changes in surface topography due to soil erosion, earthquake activity, agricultural pursuits, and modern building can make tomb exploration extremely difficult. Rock-cut tomb entrances that were mere inches below the surface may now be many feet underneath. Also, complicating the task of the archaeologist is the practice of tomb robbery in both ancient and modern times. In Jordan and in the West Bank, the practice is widespread and highly destructive.<\/p>\n
Too Late \u2014 Robbed out Roman tombs at Abila.<\/b><\/p>\n
Because of the artifact richness of some burials, tombs became the targets of robbers from the most ancient of times. The Egyptians had two lines of defense against the violation of its tombs: first, they designed tombs that made entry difficult; and second, they utilized magical protection by means of special inscriptions containing spells and curses (Spencer 1982:76\u201377, 109).<\/p>\n
These defenses did not work, however. Even the pyramids were robbed at an early date. An inscription from the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2200 BC-2050 BC) records the following:<\/p>\n
Behold now, something has been done which never happened for a long time; the king has been taken away by poor men. Behold, he who was buried as a (divine) falcon is (now) on a (mere) bier; what the pyramid hid has become empty (Wilson 1951:109).<\/p>\n
The evidence points to the fact that many ordinary cemeteries in Egypt were plundered soon after the time of interment (Spencer 1982:77). Archaeological evidence reveals that family tombs in Palestine from the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Periods used by many generations also fell victim to early pillaging.<\/p>\n
The Romans were sensitive to the violation of a burial because. .. any act that involved disturbance of the actual burial, spelt, it was believed, distress for the soul when it visited or dwelt in its body\u2019s resting place. Violatio sepulcri<\/i> (grave violation) was, indeed a criminal offense (Toynbee 1971:76).<\/p>\n
Attempts were made in Palestine to curb the stripping of tombs of their goods. A Greek inscription dated between 50 BC to AD 50 was discovered in Nazareth and contained the following lines:<\/p>\n
Ordinance of Caesar. It is my pleasure that graves and tombs remained undisturbed in perpetuity for those who have made them for the cult of their ancestors or children or members of their house.. . Let it be absolutely forbidden for anyone to disturb them. In case of contravention I desire that the offender be sentenced to capital punishment on charge of violation of sepulture (Zulueta 1932:185, also see Cook 1932:85\u20137)<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 15:1 (Winter 2002) p. 18<\/p>\n
While tomb robbery presents serious problems for the reconstruction of tomb use and the analysis of bone materials, good field methodology can still recover valuable information that can clarify such things as tomb typology, sequence of use, social status of the deceased, and the number as well the age and sex of the individuals buried.<\/p>\n
How Tombs Are Located.<\/b><\/p>\n
Quite often, tombs or burial sites are located by sheer chance or accident. Tombs in Jordan and Israel are frequently discovered by roadwork or general construction and are excavated on a salvage basis. Tombs are also located by agricultural activity or the collapse of a ceiling that leaves a noticeable depression in the ground.<\/p>\n
Locating ancient cemeteries is often one the biggest challenges facing the field archaeologist working on a new site. Some of the most significant urban archaeological sites in Palestine have yet to reveal the location of their burials. There are several means by which ancient cemeteries are located by the archaeologist.<\/p>\n
Written Sources<\/b><\/p>\n
The burial customs of most ancient Near Eastern societies are fairly well documented in ancient literature, but rarely are the locations of cemeteries part of that data. The death and burial of Alexander the Great, for example, is one of the best-documented events of the period. Details provided by Diodorus and others describe his death, funeral procession, burial chamber, temple building above the site, and many other details; yet the royal cemetery in which Alexander was buried has yet to be discovered.<\/p>\n
Significant information is provided in the Old Testament as to the preparations for burial, as well as the nature of the burial site, but rarely is geographic information provided. Beliefs concerning both the physical and ceremonial uncleanness of the corpse led many societies to establish cemeteries or communities of the dead outside the city walls. Thus, the search for burials will normally be pursued outside the ancient city walls, but close to the site.<\/p>\n
Topographic and Geological Features.<\/b><\/p>\n
Careful topographic surveys of a site can reveal clues as to the presence of tombs. Unusual surface contours and soil changes sometimes identify the location of a tomb\u2019s entrance. With time, the soil and rocks utilized to fill the entrance of tombs will settle and leave discernable depressions in the ground. Examination of such areas while the sun is low can often provide clear indications of these depressions by a shadowing effect.<\/p>\n
Equally important in locating ancient tombs is a knowledge of the geological features of the region. Not all rock formations were suitable for digging or cutting tombs. Ancient masons usually looked for soft chalk or limestone layers, which were common to most areas.<\/p>\n
Aerial Photography<\/b><\/p>\n
One of the more effective methods of determining subterranean burial sites is aerial photography during all seasons of the year and at various sun levels. A classic example of this procedure is observed in Crawford\u2019s photograph of an Etruscan necropolis (1966:393). Soil discoloration from backfilling is easily discernible from the air after an area has been dampened by a rainstorm.<\/p>\n
In much of Palestine, the presence of heavy accumulations of lime and lime byproducts causes the surface of the ground to take on a uniform white or light tan appearance when dry. Therefore, it is important to photograph surfaces immediately after a rain to detect color differences.<\/p>\n
Magnetic and Resistivity Survey<\/b><\/p>\n
For many centuries, the earth\u2019s magnetism has been crucial to geological prospecting. One of the important developments in this field is the use of the proton magnetometer, which was first utilized experimentally in 1954. In areas adjacent to urban sites, the earth\u2019s magnetic field can be disturbed by the presence of such materials as iron. Such effects are called anomalies or deviations from the normal magnetic intensity of the earth, which is measured in gamma units. The proton magnetometer is a very sensitive instrument, recording anomalies of less than one gamma.<\/p>\n
Separated silt layers on the floor of tomb f-31, Tell Hisban.<\/b><\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 15:1 (Winter 2002) p. 19<\/p>\n
Ancient Abila AE 82<\/b><\/p>\n
South Section through Tomb H-2<\/b><\/p>\n
This instrument can detect iron objects; fired structures such as kilns, furnaces, ovens, and bricks; pits and ditches filled with topsoil or rubbish; walls, foundations, roads, and tombs (Aitken 1963:555).<\/p>\n
The Excavation of Tombs<\/b><\/p>\n
The actual field strategies employed to excavate a burial will normally depend on the type of burial provenance. Burial sites may consist of simple graves, pits, pyres, tombs, monumental structures, caves or those that are purely accidental. In this article we will focus on rock-cut tombs such as were excavated at Khirbet el-Maqatir during the 2000 season.<\/p>\n
There are four basic responsibilities in excavating a tomb. First, all soil deposits outside the tomb entrance, as well as those in the tomb, must be stratigraphically excavated. The stratigraphy of a tomb\u2019s exterior can help determine its range of use, the time when it may have been robbed, or the last sealing of the tomb. Second, the tomb\u2019s geotectural characteristics must be analyzed. This is normally done when the excavation of the tomb has been completed. Matters of importance are the tomb\u2019s overall design, unusual features, and the method of tomb construction. Special attention to such detail as the tool technology employed to dig the tomb can be very useful in phasing its construction. The geotectural sophistication of a tomb can also provide eloquent testimony to the social or political status of the individual(s) buried there. In recent years there has been a greater emphasis on the importance of social organization and dynamics of cultural systems (Binford 1972:208\u201343).<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 15:1 (Winter 2002) p. 20<\/p>\n
Multiple Burials in Loculus 1, Tomb F-31, Tell Hisban. The jar contains the remains of a cremation.<\/b><\/p>\n
Third, attention must be given to the bone materials and their position in the earth matrix. Since burials are generally evidence of human ritual, careful observation of the position of the body and the grave goods aids the archaeologist in distinguishing between fixed traditions at a site and the introduction of new customs. Finally, tombs must be analyzed historically and culturally. This can only be done when careful attention is given to the tomb\u2019s geotecture, artifact assemblage and bone osteological data. To establish the cultural or historical relevance of a tomb, every feature outside and inside needs to be diligently observed, recorded and analyzed.<\/p>\n
In the next installment of this series, we will examine the relationship of burial excavation to biblical history and culture.<\/p>\n
Helim Musa probes for a tomb entrance with a steel rod at Tell Hisban<\/b><\/p>\n
Bibliography<\/b><\/p>\n
Aitken, M.<\/b><\/p>\n
1963 Magnetic Location. 555\u201368 in Science in Archaeology: A Comprehensive Survey of Progress and Research,<\/i> eds, D. Brothwell and E. Higgs. New York: Basic Books.<\/p>\n
Binford, L.R.<\/b><\/p>\n
1972 An Archaeological Perspective. New York: Seminar.<\/p>\n
Cook, S.A.<\/b><\/p>\n
1932 A Nazareth Inscription on the Violation of Tombs. Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement 85\u20137<\/i>.<\/p>\n
Crawford, O.<\/b><\/p>\n
1966 Archaeology from the Air, Pp. 387\u201393 in Hands on the Past,<\/i> ed., C.W. Cream. New York: Knopf.<\/p>\n
Spencer, A.J.<\/b><\/p>\n
1982 Death in Ancient Egypt<\/i>. New York: Penguin.<\/p>\n
Toynbee, J.M.C.<\/b><\/p>\n
1971 Death and Burial in the Roman World.<\/i> Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<\/p>\n
Wilson, J.A.<\/b><\/p>\n
1951 The Culture of Ancient Egypt.<\/i> Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<\/p>\n
Zulueta, F. de.<\/b><\/p>\n
1932 Violation of Sepulture in Palestine at the Beginning of the Christian Era. Journal of Roman Studies<\/i> 22:184\u201397.<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 15:1 (Winter 2002) p. 21<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Second of Three Parts John J. Davis The excavation of burials, once they are located, can be the fulfillment of archaeologists\u2019 dreams, but locating ancient burials is, more often than not, their worst nightmare. Changes in surface topography due to soil erosion, earthquake activity, agricultural pursuits, and modern building can make tomb exploration extremely difficult. … Continue reading “BONES,
\nBURIALS, AND BIBLICAL HISTORY:
\nTHE DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT TOMBS”<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-15339","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-sermons"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15339","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=15339"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15339\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=15339"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=15339"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=15339"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}