Third of Three Parts<\/b><\/p>\n
John J. Davis<\/b><\/p>\n
Dead men still tell tales and their stories are fascinating commentaries on their physical, social and religious lives.<\/p>\n
The amount of information burial excavation provides for the student of Scripture is truly remarkable. Human skeletal remains, for example, whether articulated or disarticulated, can inform us as to the age at death, height, sex, illnesses, trauma suffered during lifetime, and diet.<\/p>\n
Even the geographic location of a burial can be of social and religious significance. In the ancient world, the gods of the various cultures were inseparably associated with the actual soils of those lands. That is why Naaman the Syrian loaded up Israelite soil to take back to Damascus after his healing. He wanted to make sacrifices to the God of Israel and concluded that in order to do that, he needed actual soil of the land (2 Kgs 5:17).<\/p>\n
Vertebrae with osteoarthric lipping. Tomb H-2 in Abila, Jordan.<\/b><\/p>\n
This concept was very strong among the Egyptians. Not only did the Egyptians want a proper burial, but it had to be in the sands of their land where they would be under the protection of their gods. That is why Sinuhe, an official during the Middle Kingdom who went into voluntary exile in Asia, wanted to return home to die and be buried in Egypt. He wrote to the royal court requesting to return to Egypt and received the following reply:<\/p>\n
Come back to Egypt! …For today you have begun to age. You have lost a man\u2019s strength. Think of the day of burial, the passing into reveredness. …A night is made for you with ointments and wrappings from the hand of Tait. A funeral procession is made for you on the day of your burial; the mummy ease is of gold, its head of lapis lazuli. …You shall not die abroad! Nor shall Asiatics inter you. You shall not be wrapped in the skin of a ram to serve as your coffin. Too long a moaning of the earth! Think of your corpse, come back! (Lichtheim 1973:229\u201330).<\/p>\n
That Joseph did not want to be buried in Egypt, but in Canaan, is a proof that he had not adopted the Egyptian religion as some have asserted (Gn 50:25). After his death, his mummified body was taken from Egypt to Shechem for burial (Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32). Jacob made a similar request and he was buried near Mamre (Gn 50:13), land that Abraham had bought for Sarah\u2019s burial earlier (Gn 23).<\/p>\n
All this becomes even more significant when we consider the marvelous testimony of Ruth when she was challenged to return to her native land, Moab. In the conclusion of her testimony she says, \u201cWhere you die, I will die, and there 1 will be buried….\u201d(Ru 1:17), If her faith in the Lord were not genuine, she would never have made such a statement.<\/p>\n
Disarticulated burials in Tomb K-1 in Abila, Jordan, Roman period.<\/b><\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 15:3 (Summer 2002) p. 82<\/p>\n
The Mummification of Jacob<\/b><\/p>\n
Specific information is provided in Genesis 50 regarding the death and mummification of Jacob. The details of this account, in the light of studies on Egyptian death and burial, are fascinating. Genesis 50:2 (NASB) reads:<\/p>\n
And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father. So the physicians embalmed Israel.<\/p>\n
Note first, that Joseph did not employ the professional embalmers for this task, but \u201cphysicians.\u201d The Hebrew word for physicians in this text is harop\u2019 \u2018im,<\/i> which comes from the verbal root rapa<\/i> meaning \u201cto heal\u201d (Brown, Driver and Briggs 1952:179). This refers specifically to physicians whose concerns were with the living and the healing of various illnesses. Why then should this Hebrew term be used to describe the embalming process? There were a number of other Hebrew words that could more specifically describe the traditional embalmer or mortician.<\/p>\n
Multiple burials in Loculus 5, Tomb H-2 in Abila, Jordan. Earlier objects were pushed to the back to accommodate the latest burial.<\/b><\/p>\n
There are two possibilities. First, the term \u201cphysician\u201d may be used here in the broadest sense of those who worked with the human body. The problem with this assumption is that among Egyptian professionals, the embalmers and the physicians were members of distinctly different classes.<\/p>\n
More likely, Joseph intentionally called for physicians to prepare the body of his father in order to avoid the magical and mystical practices that would inevitably be part of the process if undertaken by Egyptian embalmers and priests.<\/p>\n
Also of importance with respect to Genesis 50:2 is the use of the word \u201cembalm.\u201d This is a translation of the Hebrew hanat<\/i> meaning \u201cto spice, make spicy, embalm\u201d (Brown, Driver, and Briggs 1952:334). The term is widely used for the preparation and use of spices. However, as it appears in the three verses in Genesis 50, it obviously applies to the preparation of the human body for death, perhaps with the use of spices, but certainly with other elements as well.<\/p>\n
The actual time of the embalming and mourning is another important detail of the Genesis narrative. According to Genesis 50:3 the Egyptians \u201cmourned for him 70 days.\u201d What exactly was included in this 70-day period? Some have seen contradictions at this point since in some Egyptian documents the period of time involved in the embalming process varies from one document to another.<\/p>\n
For example, in one case the embalming occupied 16 days, the bandaging 35 days, and the burial 70 days, i.e., 121 days in all. In another example, the embalming took 66 days; special preparations for burial, four days; and the burial itself, 26 days; in other words, a total of 96 days (Budge 1899:179). These cases, however, appear to have been exceptions to the normal practice.<\/p>\n
Of great importance is the fact that in Egyptian documents there is constant reference to a period of 70 days that elapsed between the time of death and the completion of burial rites. No less than five Egyptian texts refer to this 70-day period, including a Ptolemaic Stela in the British Museum (No.378). which reads \u201c…he had a goodly burial after the 70 days of his embalming had been fulfilled\u201d (Anonymous:<\/i> 6\u20137).<\/p>\n
Stela numbers 110 and 164, dating back to the 18th Dynasty, also make reference to the same time period for the completion of the mummification process. One reference is from the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, and the other from her successor, Thutmoses III. The relevant part of the inscription is the same in both cases reading:<\/p>\n
A goodly burial arrives in peace, thy 70 days having been fulfilled in the place of embalming (Anonymous:<\/i> 7).<\/p>\n
The historian Herodotus suggested that it took 70 days to dehydrate the body, but later studies have shown this to be incorrect. More likely, the 70-day period includes 40 days for the dehydration process, and the remaining time for wrapping and final ceremonies. This accords very well with the embalming details of Jacob.<\/p>\n
The principal time for dehydration and the beginning of wrapping would be approximately 40 days with the remaining 30 to include final wrapping, preparation of the coffin, and a period of mourning followed by the delivery of the body (Davis 1972:126; Hamilton-Patterson and Andrews 1978:43).<\/p>\n
These conclusions are farther confirmed by Egyptologist Alfred Lucas who conducted a series of experiments involving dehydration and use of natron. His experiments have recently been confirmed by the work of Dr. Zaki Iskander in Cairo. Both reached the conclusion that the overall period of embalming, wrapping, and mourning was approximately 70 days (Hamilton-Patterson and Andrews 1978:43; Lucas 1962). More recent experiments by Bob Brier and Ron Wade have similarly supported this time frame (Brier 2001:49).<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 15:3 (Summer 2002) p. 83<\/p>\n
It would be expected that Joseph, in holding such a high position in the land, would have accorded his father the best embalming possible by mummification, but certainly would have excluded the magical texts involving polytheism which would have necessarily accompanied traditional rites by native Egyptian embalmers.<\/p>\n
When Joseph died at 110 years of age, the Biblical text indicates that he was also embalmed and put in a coffin in Egypt (Gn 50:26). The word for coffin here is the Hebrew aron,<\/i> meaning a chest or ark. This is the same word that is employed to describe the Ark of the covenant in the Old Testament. Its use here, of course, refers to the coffin in which the body of Joseph was placed after embalming.<\/p>\n
The willingness of Joseph and Jacob to be buried in Canaan constitutes irrefutable evidence that they had not become worshipers of any of the Egyptian deities, but remained faithful to the God of their fathers.<\/p>\n
Stratigraphy is Important<\/b><\/p>\n
Careful stratigraphic analysis of soil deposits outside and within the tomb is critically important for accurate interpretation of the phased uses of that tomb. On occasion, very special information can be extracted that may be of Biblical significance.<\/p>\n
One example of this is the stratigraphic profile of Tomb 302 at Tekoa, Israel. This Iron II tomb had a thick layer of pure limestone over eighth century pottery in three excavated squares on the floor. It was clear that part of the ceiling had fractured and collapsed. The most reasonable explanation for such a large collapse would be earthquake activity. It is possible that this tomb, therefore, documents the great earthquake mentioned in Amos 1:1 (Davis 1974:32\u201333).<\/p>\n
Skeletal Analysis is Revealing<\/b><\/p>\n
The most fascinating and informative information from burials comes from the bones themselves. Osteological analysis of surviving skeletal materials is basic to good burial excavation.<\/p>\n
The analysis of teeth is important in determining age and dietary habits (Bass 1987:259\u2013290; Hutchinson 1973:25\u201329, 67\u201369). Among grain-eating cultures as those in ancient Israel, occlusal wear (grinding down of the molar crowns due to the presence of grit in food materials) is fairly common. Good examples of this phenomenon were found in the tombs at Khirbet el-Maqatir during the 2000 season. Such wear can even be a determinant of age (Bass: 238\u201339).<\/p>\n
The bones are one of the most interesting and valuable commentaries on the life of ancient peoples. Matters such as diseases, trauma, age at death, cause of death, diet, and occupation can be determined by the careful analysis of bone morphology and densities. The cause of death is an important feature of osteological work and the results can shed light on larger cultural or historical issues.<\/p>\n
Tekoa Tomb 302 (Iron Age II). Floor stratigraphy produced possible evidence of the great earthquake of Amos 1:1.<\/b><\/p>\n
DNA studies on mummies and bones are helping to clarify family relationship of individuals in a tomb. This has been especially significant in unraveling the complexities of 18th Dynasty pharaohs (Woodward 1996:45\u201347).<\/p>\n
The discovery of the remains of Yehohanan in the cemetery at Giv\u2019at ha-Mivtar in northeast Jerusalem is a classic example of the importance of bone analysis (Tzaferis 1970 and Haas 1970). He was one of 35 found in Jewish ossuaries and one of nine who had died of violent causes (Haas 1970:42\u201313).<\/p>\n
His death was attributed to crucifixion when he was about 24-28 years old. This 1.7 m (5 ft 5 in) man\u2019s heel bones were found transfixed by a large iron nail. The right tibia (shin bone) was spotted with dark brown stains (Haas 1970:42), The nail had been bent as if it was pounded into a cross of olive wood (Haas: 1970:56; cf Hewitt 1932:29\u201345). The right tibia had been fractured into slivers by a severe blow that was administered to hasten death (note Jn 19:31\u201332).<\/p>\n
A crease in the right radial bone indicates that he had been nailed through the forearms rather than the palms. All this sheds interesting tight on the crucifixion of the Lord Jesus. Were the nails in his wrist rather than His palms as is often depicted in paintings? The Greek cheira<\/i> used in Luke 24:39\u201340 and John 20:20, 25, 27 is usually translated \u201chands\u201d in the New Testament and extra-Biblical texts (Thayer 1901:667\u201368). It could be that the Romans used both methods and this find documents only one.<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 15:3 (Summer 2002) p. 84<\/p>\n
The position of the feet in this crucifixion is of special interest. At first, the anthropologists speculated that the feet were in the open position, but later concluded that the legs were adjacent (Haas 1970:57\u201358, plate 24). If this position had been used in the crucifixion of Christ, the affects would have been excruciatingly painful.<\/p>\n
Ancient crucifixion. At first, the anthropologists speculated that the feet were in the open position, but later concluded that the legs were adjacent.<\/b><\/p>\n
After His death, He was placed in a new tomb (Jn 19:41) owned by Joseph of Arimathea (Mk 15:46). This is clearly the most important tomb in Jerusalem and the good news is that it is empty! He is not there because He has risen from the dead (Mk 16:6). This great event allows us to say with the apostle Paul, \u201cO death, where is your victory? O death, where is your sting?\u201d (1 Cor 15:55 NASB).<\/p>\n
Bibliography<\/b><\/p>\n
Anonymous<\/b><\/p>\n
n.d. An Egyptian Mummy,<\/i> Melbourne: The Australian Institute of Archaeology.<\/p>\n
Bass, W. M.<\/b><\/p>\n
1987 Human Osteology,<\/i> third ed. Columbia MO: Missouri Archaeological Society.<\/p>\n
Brier, B.<\/b><\/p>\n
2001 A Thoroughly Modern Mummy. Archaeology<\/i> 54.1:44\u201350.<\/p>\n
Brown, F.; Driver, S.R.; and Briggs, C.<\/b><\/p>\n
1952 A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament,<\/i> corrected impression. Oxford, England: Clarendon.<\/p>\n
Budge, E.<\/b><\/p>\n
1899 Egyptian Magic,<\/i> London: Trubner.<\/p>\n
Davis, J.<\/b><\/p>\n
1972 The Mummies of Egypt.<\/i> Winona Lake IN: BMH Books.<\/p>\n
1974 Tekoa Excavations: Tomb 302. The Bulletin of the Near East Archaeological Society<\/i> 4; 27\u201349.<\/p>\n
Haas, N.<\/b><\/p>\n
1970 Anthropological Observations on the Skeletal Remains from Giv\u2019at ha-Mivtar. Israel Exploration Journal<\/i> 20:1\u20132.<\/p>\n
Hamilton-Patterson, J., and Andrews, C.<\/b><\/p>\n
1978 Mummies: Death and Life in Ancient Egypt.<\/i> New York: Penguin Books.<\/p>\n
Hewitt, J.<\/b><\/p>\n
1932 The Use of Nails in the Crucifixion. Harvard Theological Review<\/i> 25.<\/p>\n
Hutchinson, T.C.<\/b><\/p>\n
1973 Laboratory Methods in Physical Archaeology<\/i> Columbia MO: Museum of Anthropology, University of Missouri<\/p>\n
Lichtheim, M.<\/b><\/p>\n
1973 Ancient Egyptian Literature<\/i> III. Los Angeles: University of California Press.<\/p>\n
Lucas, A.<\/b><\/p>\n
1962 Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries,<\/i> fourth ed., revised and enlarged by J.B. Harris. London: E. Arnold.<\/p>\n
Thayer, J.<\/b><\/p>\n
1901 A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament.<\/i> Edinburgh: T. T. Clark.<\/p>\n
Tzaferis, V.<\/b><\/p>\n
1970 Jewish Tombs at and near Giv\u2019at ha-Mivtar, Jerusalem, Israel Exploration Journal<\/i> 20.<\/p>\n
Woodward, S.<\/b><\/p>\n
1996 Genealogy of New Kingdom Pharaohs and Queens. Archaeology<\/i> 49.5:45\u201347.<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 15:3 (Summer 2002) p. 85<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Third of Three Parts John J. Davis Dead men still tell tales and their stories are fascinating commentaries on their physical, social and religious lives. The amount of information burial excavation provides for the student of Scripture is truly remarkable. Human skeletal remains, for example, whether articulated or disarticulated, can inform us as to the … Continue reading “BONES,
\nBURIALS AND BIBLICAL HISTORY:
\nTHE RESULTS OF BURIAL EXCAVATION”<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-15349","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-sermons"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15349","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=15349"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15349\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=15349"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=15349"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.biblia.work\/sermons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=15349"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}