Bryant G. Wood<\/b><\/p>\n
Steven Collins maintains that Tall el-Hammam, ca. 8 mi (13 km) northeast of the Dead Sea. should he identified as Sodom based on four criteria: geography, chronology, stratigraphy and architecture (2007). We will examine his arguments in each of those four areas.<\/p>\n
Geographical Evidence for Locating Sodom<\/b><\/p>\n
Biblical References<\/b><\/p>\n
Collins begins by stating. \u201cSodom and Gomorrah. Admah and Zeboiim almost never appear on Bible maps\u201d (2007: 70). and \u201ceven conservative Bible maps don\u2019t include them (Sodom and Gomorrahl\u201d (2007: 73). These statements arc quite inaccurate. In reviewing eight Bible atlases published since 1997 lhat cover The period of the Patriarchs, seven locate the Cities of the Plain south of the Dead Sea.1 The eighth (Team Media 1998) offers no suggestion as to their location.<\/p>\n
An analysis of geographical indicators in Scripture places Sodom and the Cities of the Plain south of the Dead Sea. The southern border of Canaan is described in Genesis 10:19 as passing from Gaza, on the Mediterranean coast, to Gerar, identified as Tel Haror 12.4 mi (20 km) southeast of Gaza (Klenck 2002: 29), to the Cities of the Plain. Tel Haror lies west of the southern end of the Dead Sea as it existed in Abraham\u2019s time.2 Tall el-Hammam, on the other hand, lies northeast of the Dead Sea. When the four kings of Mesopotamia fought against the kings of the Cities of the Plain, they \u201cjoined forces in the Valley of Siddim (the Salt Sea)\u201d (Gn 14:3). a clear reference to the southern basin of the Dead Sea which had Hooded in later times (Frumkin and Elitzur 2001: 49\u201350). When Ezekiel chastised Jerusalem for her wickedness, he said,<\/p>\n
Your older sister was Samaria, who lived 10 the north of you with her daughters; and your younger sister, who lived to the south of you with her daughters, was Sodom (Ez 16:46).<\/p>\n
Samaria is 34 mi (55 km) north of Jerusalem and Bab edh-Dhra, the likely site of Sodom (Wood 1999: 68\u201369), is 40 mi (64 km) southeast of Jerusalem. Tall el-Hammam, however, is 26 mi (42 km) east-northeast of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n
Because Lot lied to Zoar to escape the catastrophe which befell the Cities of the Plain ((in 19:21\u201323), the town was spared God\u2019s judgment. From Biblical and extrabiblical references we<\/p>\n
Segment of the Madaba mosaic map<\/b> showing Zoar (\u201cZOOPA\u201d) al the southeast edge of the Dead Sea and the sanctuary of St. Lot in the mountains to the east.<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 20:3 (Summer 2007) p. 79<\/p>\n
know that Zoar was occupied from the lime of Abraham to the Middle Ages. Both Isaiah (15:5) and Jeremiah (48:34) mention it in their prophecies against Moab (Iron Age). It is further mentioned in various ancient references from the Roman period to the Middle Ages (Astour 1992; Howard 1988: Schaub 1997: 63). Both Josephus (The Wars of the Jews<\/i> 4.8.4; first century) and Eusebius (2003: 58 [The Sea of Salt]: early fourth century) state that Zoar was south of the Dead Sea, and the famous Madaba Map (sixth century) places Zoar and the Sanctuary of St Lot south of the Dead Sea (Donner 1992: 42). The Sanctuary of St. Lot, actually a monastery and church complex, has been located south of The Dead Sea and excavated (Polilis 1999). It was built around a natural cave which early Christians believed was the cave Lot and his daughters took refuge in after the destruction of the Cities of the Plain (Gn 19:30).<\/p>\n
Geological Considerations<\/b><\/p>\n
The geology of the plain south of the Dead Sea also points to this area as being the location of<\/i> the Cities of the Plain. Genesis 14:10 states, \u201cnow the Valley of Siddim was full of tar (ḥēmār) pits.\u201d Ḥēmār is bitumen, a naturally occurring petroleum substance similar to asphalt. It was used extensively in antiquity for mortar, sealing and as a binding agent, and is commonly found in the area south of the Dead Sea (Bilkadi 1984: 1994: Clapp 1936a: 901\u2013902: 1936b: 341\u201342: Neev and Emery 1995: 141\u201343). The material that fell on the plain causing the destruction of everything save Zoar was gop̮r\u00eet, sulfurous oil (black sulfur) (Wood 1999: 74\u201375). Petroleum and sulfur are also present south of the Dead Sea (Clapp 1936a: 906; 1936b: 40; Harris and Beardow 1995: 360; Neev and Emery 1995: 33, 140\u201352).<\/p>\n
\u201cLot looked up and saw that the whole plain of Jordan was well watered\u2026like the land of Egypt\u201d (On 13:10). Collins interprets this as referring to the annual flooding of the Jordan River, similar to the Nile River (2007:71). The Hebrew words used, however, do not support this interpretation. The Hebrew words translated \u201cwell watered\u201d are k̮ullāh, meaning \u201call of it,\u201d and mas̆qeh, a noun derived from the causative form of the verb meaning \u201cto drink,\u201d giving the meaning \u201ccompletely irrigated.\u201d Thus the allusion is to the irrigated land of Goshen in the northeast delta of Egypt where the Israelites lived during their sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n
Paleobotanical studies have shown that there was a rich diversity of crops grown at Bab edh-Dhra and her nearby sister city Numeira, probably Gomorrah (Wood 1999: 68\u201369). Most common were barley, wheat, grape, figs, lentils and flax. Less common were chickpeas, peas, broad beans, dates and olives (McCreery 1980: 52). Several of these crops could only have been grown with the use of irrigation:<\/p>\n
\u201cThen the Lord rained down burning sulfur<\/b> on Sodom and Gomorrah\u2014from the Lord out of the heavens. Thus He overthrew those cities\u201d (Gn 19:24\u201325). All across the site of Bab edh-Dhra archaeologists found evidence of a fiery destruction, such as this layer of ash in the western temple. Tumbled walls attested to an earthquake as well.<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 20:3 (Summer 2007) p. 80<\/p>\n
Michael Luddeni<\/p>\n
Charnel house A22 in the cemetery at Bab edh-Dhra<\/b>. In the final phase of occupation at Bab edh-Dhra, the dead were interred in mud brick buildings called charnel houses. Five examples were excavated, and in each case they were destroyed by fire at the same time the city was destroyed. Careful stratigraphic excavation of charnel house A22 shown here, the largest of those excavated, revealed that the fire started in the roof and spread to the interior when the roof collapsed. This provides powerful evidence that \u201cthe Lord rained down burning sulfur on Sodom and Gomorrah\u2014from the Lord out of the heavens\u201d (Gn 19:24).<\/p>\n
There is little doubt that agriculture was an important component of the economic base of the Early Bronze Age cities in the [southeast Dead Sea plain] region and that irrigation was a key element of the agricultural Industry (McCreery 1981: 168: cf. p. 167; 1980: 52; Harlan 2003).<\/p>\n
It appears that each of the Cities of the Plain controlled the water from perennial streams that flowed into the plain from the plateau to the east (McCreery 2003; Schaub 1997: 63).<\/p>\n
Understanding Genesis 13<\/b><\/p>\n
Collins\u2019 main evidence for locating Sodom north of the Dead Sea is found in Genesis 13. There we have the account of Lot choosing die Cities of the Plain (kikkur<\/i>) as the area where he would pasture his flocks. Collins interprets the location of the event as \u201cthe environs of Bethel\/Ai\u201d (2007: 71). Thus, when Lot \u201cset out toward the east\u201d (Gn 13:11), he would have traveled to the area of the southern Jordan Valley just north of the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n
A careful analysis of the chapter, however, reveals that that is not necessarily the case. The separation passage, vss. 5\u201317, is bracketed by references to two important camping places which had religious significance for Abraham. After returning from Egypt, Abraham moved northward until he came to the place between Bethel and Ai where he had previously built an altar. \u201cThere Abram called on the name of the Lord\u201d (Gn 13:3\u20134). Following the separation. \u201cAbram moved his tents and went to live near the great trees of Mamre at Hebron, where he built an altar to the Lord\u201d (Gn 13:18). We are not given the details of the journey from Bethel\/Ai to Hebron, except for the account of the separation of Lot. The straight-line distance from Bethel\/Ai to Hebron is ca. 27 mi (44 km), and so the journey would have required a number of encampments. Since Abraham would have sought the best pasturage for his animals along the way, it is unlikely that he traveled in a straight line.<\/p>\n
Genesis 13 does not specifically state where the separation look place. From the Bethel\/Ai area to Tall el-Hammam is ca. 25 mi (40 km), a considerable distance for Lot lo observe \u201cthat the whole plain of the Jordan was well watered\u201d (Gn 13:10). Based on the evidence we have considered, it is more likely that the separation look place in southern Canaan just prior lo Abraham settling at Hebron, If their wanderings took them southeast of Hebron, they could have come lo a place ca. 15 mi (24 km) east of Bab edh-Dhra. where Lot would have been close enough lo observe the vegetation of the kikkar<\/i> of the Jordan (Cassuto 1984:215, 368).<\/p>\n
Regarding die use of Genesis 13 lo locate Sodom. Walter Rast, one of the excavators of Bah edh-Dhra. summarized the situation well<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 20:3 (Summer 2007) p. 81<\/p>\n
One can safely say that the directions and locations in Genesis 13 are the most general and obscure of all the texts about Sodom. It is surprising that some scholars could put so much weight on the indistinct locations given there for a northern location], while rejecting the more compelling references in other texts [for a southern location] (2006: 21).<\/p>\n
Collins understands the Hebrew word kikkar,<\/i> translated plain, as meaning a circular disk, and the Jordan Valley north of the Dead Sea, according to Collins, matches that description (2007: 72). Any map or satellite photo of the area will show, however, that the plain is not circular, but rectangular in shape. Furthermore, Sodom and Gomorrah and the Cities of the Plain were associated with the kikkar<\/i> of the Jordan (Gn 13:10, 11). The plain north of the Dead Sea was called the kikkar<\/i> of the valley of Jericho (Dt 34:3. KJV). not the kikkur<\/i> of the Jordan. A different kikkar<\/i> of the Jordan from the one the Cities of the Plain were associated with was located between Zarethan, most likely Tell es-Saidiyeh (Tubb 1997: 452). and Succoth, probably Tell Deir Alla (Franken 1997: 138), (1 Kgs 7:46). It is squarish in shape. The Hebrew word kikkar<\/i> was used of bread (Ex 29:23) or a specified weight of precious metal, a talent (Ex 25:39). It is evident that it was the flatness of these objects that caused the word to be applied to a plain, rather than roundness (Speiser 1964: 96\u201397).<\/p>\n
Chronological Evidence for Locating Sodom<\/b><\/p>\n
Collins maintains that the Cities of the Plain \u201cmust date from the Middle Bronze Age\u201d which is \u201cthe only possible timeframe for Abraham\u201d (2007:72). I le reaches this conclusion by lowering the dales for Abraham 215 years by using a Sojourn of 215 years rather than 430 as stipulated in Exodus 12:40 (2007: 77, n. 3). Ray has carefully reviewed all of the pertinent evidence regarding the Sojourn and concludes:<\/p>\n
the various lines of evidence would seem to indicate that the 430 years should be taken at face value for the Israelite sojourn in Egypt (2004: 42; 2007: 94).<\/p>\n
Starting with the date of the Exodus at 1446 BC (Wood 2005) and a Sojourn of 430 years, a straightforward reading of the chronological data in the Old Testament yields dates for Abraham of 2166\u20131991 BC. with the destruction of the Cities of the Plain occurring in 2067 BC (Walton 1978:40),3 at the end of the Early Bronze (EB) period. Collins, however, lowers This date by 215 years to 1852 BC in the Middle Bronze I period.4 Since Middle Bronze Age pottery was found at Tall el-Hammam. Collins concludes that it must be Sodom (2007: 75). But he is vague about what phase of the Middle Bronze Age Tall el-Hammam was occupied. The Middle Bronze Age was very long, stretching from ca. 1920\u20131483 BC (Bietak 2002: 37\u201338, 41\u201342). More specific dating must be provided before a correlation can be made with Biblical Sodom,<\/p>\n
Jordan Valley north of the Dead Sea<\/b> showing the Plain of the Valley of Jericho (Dt 34:3) and the Plain of the Jordan between Zarethan and Succoth (1 Kgs 7:46). The distance between lines is 6.2 mi (10 km). Traced from the 1973 Survey of Israel 1:250,000 map.<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 20:3 (Summer 2007) p. 82<\/p>\n
R\u00f6hr Productions, Nicosia, Cyprus<\/p>\n
Satellite photo of the Jordan Valley north of the Dead Sea.<\/b> Note that the shape of the plain is not circular, but rectangular.<\/p>\n
Stratigraphic Evidence for Locating Sodom<\/b><\/p>\n
Collins\u2019 third criterion for identifying Tall el-Hammam with Sodom is stratigraphy, i.e.. the archaeological phases found at the site (2007: 72). He maintains that a Middle Bronze Age destruction should be found, followed by \u201cat least a few centuries of abandonment\u201d since Moses found the area to be uninhabited according to Numbers 21:20 (2007: 72). Since the evidence points lo a southern location for Sodom, however, the reference to \u201cwasteland\u201d in Numbers 21:20 is irrelevant, given that it applies to the kikkar<\/i> of the valley of Jericho and not to Sodom.<\/p>\n
Since \u201coccupation at the site [of Tall el-Hammam] came to an abrupt halt\u2026during the Middle Bronze Age\u201d and Middle Bronze Age remains were found in one area \u201cburied under nearly 3 ft (1 m) of ash and destruction debris\u201d (2007: 76). Collins assumes a match with the destruction of Sodom as described in Genesis 19 (2007: 76). But he fails to provide a date for this destruction. and there has been insufficient excavation to determine if it is site-wide or merely a local occurrence. In order for there to be a match with Sodom, it is necessary to have evidence for a massive site- and area-wide destruction by tire, accompanied by an enormous earthquake (Wood 1999: 72\u201378). in 2067 BC (or 1852 BC, according to Collins\u201d chronology). This has not yet been demonstrated for Tall el-Hammam.<\/p>\n
Architectural Evidence for Locating Sodom<\/b><\/p>\n
The final criterion for identifying Sodom is architecture (Collins 2007: 72). By this. Collins means that the site must be fortified, since \u201cLot was silting in the gateway of the city\u201d when the two angels arrived (Gn 19:1). A typical Middle Bronze Age rampart fortification system has been found at Tall el-Hammani, but again we must ask. \u201cWhat is the dale of this system?\u201d Simply saying that it is Middle Bronze Age in date is not sufficient. It must correlate to the exact time of the destruction of the Cities of the Plain as recorded in Scripture.<\/p>\n
The Date of the Destruction of the Southern Sites<\/b><\/p>\n
Collins\u2019 major criticism with the Early Bronze Age sites discovered south of the Dead Sea, in addition to the fact that they do not correlate with his understanding of Genesis 13, is that they were destroyed too early. He says Bab edh-Dhra and Numeira \u201cwere both destroyed about 2350 BC, long before the time of Abraham and Lot\u201d (2007: 77 n. 3). The destruction of these sites occurred at the end of the EB III period. Rast gives The date as 2350 BC (2006: 24), while the co-director of the excavations, R. Thomas Schaub, places the date slightly later at 2300 BC( 1997: 249).<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 20:3 (Summer 2007) p. 83<\/p>\n
In reality, the archaeological date for the end of the EB III period cannot be determined with any degree of certainty. Dating for the Bronze Age in Palestine is dependent upon synchronisms with Egyptian chronology. Unfortunately, no synchronisms have yet been found for the EB III period. There are a few correlations for the previous EB II period, suggesting that it was approximately contemporary with the Archaic Period (First and Second Dynasties) in Egypt, ca. 3100\u20132700 BC (Ben-Tor 1992: 122; Kitchen 1996: II; Mazar 1990: 135). The dates for The Archaic Period are only known to within 200 years, according lo Kenneth Kitchen, a recognized authority on Egyptian chronology (1991:202).<\/p>\n
Bryant G. Wood<\/p>\n
The author points to the burn layer at Numeira<\/b>, testifying to the fiery destruction that overcame the city at the end of the EB III period. As at Bab edh-Dhra, there was evidence of a violent earthquake that occurred with the fire. The sites of Bab edh-Dhra and Numeira are located on the eastern fault line of the Jordan rift valley. Geologists theorize that an earthquake caused pressure on subterranean petroleum deposits which were forced out of the ground, ignited, and fell back down on the Cities of the Plain.<\/p>\n
Manfred Bietak. based on his important work at Tell el- Dab\u2018a (ancient Rameses). Egypt, places the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age at ca. 1920 BC (2002: 37, 41\u201342). How the intervening 800 years from the end of EB II lo the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age should be divided between the EB III and KB IV periods is strictly an educated guess.5 The reason for the demise of the urban centers of EB III, with its concomitant destructions and site abandonments, is unknown (Ben-Tor 1992: 123\u201324; Mazar 1990: 141\u201313; Richard 1987: 34). It is thought that EB III was the longer of the two periods because of multiple phases of building and destruction found at a number of sites, including Bab edh-Dhra (Ben-Tor 1992: 123). It is entirely within the realm of possibility, therefore, that the destruction of Bab edh-Dhra and Numeira could have occurred at the Biblical dale of 2067 BC. We shall have to wait further archaeological discoveries before an accurate archaeological date for the end o<\/i>( EB III can be ascertained.6 <\/p>\n
Conclusion<\/b><\/p>\n
All of the relevant evidence points to the area south of the Dead Sea as The correct location for Sodom. Excavations at two sites hi that region. Bab edh-Dhra and Numeira, have provided strong evidence that these two sites should be identified as Sodom and Gomorrah, respectively (Wood 1999),7 liven if one grants the possibility that the Cities of the Plain should be located north of the Dead Sea, the excavations at Tall el-Hammam to date have not provided the necessary evidence lo make a viable connection between the site and Biblical Sodom. Collins\u2019 statement, \u201cTall el-Hammam is, far and away, the best candidate for Biblical Sodom\u201d (2007: 77), goes beyond the available evidence.<\/p>\n
BSpade<\/i> 20:3 (Summer 2007) p. 84<\/p>\n
Bibliography<\/b><\/p>\n
Aharoni, Yohanan; Avi-Yonah, Michael: Rainey. Anson F.; and Safrai. Ze<\/i>\u2019e<\/i><\/b>
<\/i>2002 The Carta Bible Atlas..<\/i> fourth ed. Jerusalem: Carta. <\/p>\n
Astour. Michael C.<\/b>
1992 Zoar. P. 1107 in The Anchor Bible Dictionary<\/i> 6, ed David N. Freedman. New York: Doubleday. <\/p>\n
Ben-Tor. Amnon<\/b>
1992 The Early Bronze Age. Pp. 81\u2013125 in The Archeology of Ancient Israel,<\/i> ed. Amnon Ben-Tor. New Haven; Yale University. <\/p>\n
Bietak, Manfred<\/b>
2002 Relative and Absolute Chronology of the Middle Bronze Age: Comments on the Present Suite of Research. Pp. 29\u201342 in The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant,<\/i> ed. Manfred Bietak. Denkschriften der Gesamtadademie 26. Vienna: \u00d6sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.<\/p>\n
Bilkadi, Zayn<\/b>
1984 Bitumen\u2014A History. Aramco World<\/i> 35,6: 2-9.
1994 Bulls from the Sea. Aramco World<\/i> 45.4: 20\u201331. <\/p>\n
Cassuto, Umberto<\/b>
1984 A Commentary on the Book of Genesis. Part<\/i> 2. From Noah to Abraham.<\/i> Reprint of English ed. first published in 1964. Trans. Israel Abrahams, from Hebrew, Hebrew ed. first published in 1949. Jerusalem: Magnes. <\/p>\n
Clapp, Frederick<\/b>
1936a Geology and Bitumens of the Dead Sea Area. Bulletin of Petroleum Geologists<\/i> 20:881\u2013909.
1936b The Site of Sodom and Gomorrah. American Journal of Archaeology<\/i> 40; 323\u201344.<\/p>\n
Collins, Steven<\/b>
2007 Sodom: The Discovers of a Lost City. Bible and Spade<\/i> 20: 70\u201377. <\/p>\n
Curtis. Adrian, ed.<\/b>
2007 Oxford Bible Atlas,<\/i> fourth ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University. <\/p>\n
Deter. William G.<\/b>
1992 Palestine, Archaeology of (Bronze and Iron Ages). Pp. 109-14 in. The Anchor Bible Dictionary<\/i> 5. ed. David N. Freedman. New York: Doubleday. <\/p>\n
Donner, Herbert<\/b>
1992 The Mosaic Map of Madaba.<\/i> Kampen. The Netherlands: Kok Pharos. <\/p>\n
Dowley, Tim, ed.<\/b>
1997 Atlas of the Bible and Christianity<\/i> London: Angus Hudson.<\/p>\n
Eusebius of Caesarea<\/b>
2003 The Onomasticon: Palestine in the Fourth Century A.D.<\/i> Trans. from Greek and Latin by Greville S.P. Freeman-Grenville. Jerusalem: Carta.<\/p>\n
Farrington, Karen<\/b>
2003 Historical Atlas of the Holy Lands.<\/i> New York: Checkmark. <\/p>\n
Franken. Hendricus J.<\/b>
1997 Deir \u2018Alia, Tell. Pp. 137-38 in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East<\/i> 2. ed. Eric M. Meyers. New York: Oxford University. <\/p>\n
Frumkin. Amos, and Elitzur, Yoel<\/b>
2001 The RISC and Fall of The Dead Sea. Biblical Archaeology Review<\/i> 27.6: 42\u201350.<\/p>\n
Harlan. Jack K.<\/b>
2003 Natural Resources of the Bah edh-Dhr\u00e2\u2019 Pp. 56\u201361 in B\u00e2b edh-Dhr\u00e2<\/i>\u2019; Excavations at the Town Site<\/i> (1975\u20131981<\/i>), by Walter E. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub. Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns.<\/p>\n
Harris. G.M.. and Beardow, A.P.<\/b>
1995 The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah: A Geotechnical Perspective. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology<\/i> 28: 349\u201362.<\/p>\n
Howard, David M.. Jr.<\/b>
1988 Zoar. P. 1203 in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia<\/i> 4. ed. Goeffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans. <\/p>\n
Kitchen. Kenneth A.<\/b>
1991 The Chronology of Ancient Egypt. World Archaeology IV.<\/i> 201\u2013208.
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Klenck, Joel D.<\/b>
2002 The Canaanite Cultic Milieu. The Zooarchaeological Evidence from Tel Haror. Israel.<\/i> BAR International Series 1029. Oxford, England: Archaeopress.<\/p>\n
Lawrence. Paul<\/b>
2006 The HP Alias of Bible History.<\/i> Downers Grove IT: InterVarsity. <\/p>\n
MeCreey. David W.<\/b>
1980 Paleobotany, Pp. 52\u201353 in Preliminary Report of the 1979 Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain. Jordan, eds, Walter E. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research<\/i> 240: 21\u201361.
1981 Flotation of the Bab edh-Dhra and Numeira Plant Remains. Pp. 165\u201369 in The Southeastern Dead Sea Plain Expedition: An Interim Report of the 1977 Season,<\/i> ed. Walter L. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 46. ed. Joseph A. Callaway. Cambridge MA: American Schools of Oriental Research.
2003 The Paleoethnobotany B\u00e2b edh-Dhr\u00e2\u2019. Pp. 449\u201363 in B\u00e2b edh-Dhr\u00e2\u2019: Excavations at the Town Site (1975\u20131981),<\/i> by Walter E. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub. Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns. <\/p>\n
Mazar, Amihai<\/b>
1990 Archaeology of tire Land of the Bible.<\/i> New York: Doubleday. <\/p>\n
Neeve, David, and Emery. Kenneth O.<\/b>
1995 The Destruction of Sodom. Gomorrah, and Jericho<\/i>\u2019 Geological. Climatological and Archaeological Background<\/i> New York: Oxford University.<\/p>\n
Rainey, Anson F., and Notley, R. Steven<\/b>
2006 The Sacred Bridge: Carta\u2019s Atlas of the Biblical World.<\/i> Jerusalem: Carta.<\/p>\n
Rast Writer E.<\/b>
2006 Sodom and Its Environs: Can Recent Archaeology Oiler a Perspective? Hear East Archaeological Society Bulletin<\/i> 51:19\u201326.<\/p>\n
Kay. Paul J., Jr.<\/b>
2007 The Duration of the Israelite Sojourn in Egypt. Reprinted from Bible and Spade<\/i> (2004); 33\u201344.<\/p>\n
Richard, Suzanne<\/b>
1987 The Early Bronze Age: The Rise and Collapse of Urbanism. Biblical Archaeologist<\/i> 50: 22\u201313.<\/p>\n
Schaub. K. Thomas<\/b>
1997 Southeast IX*ad Sea Plain. Pp. 62-64 in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East<\/i> 5. ed. Eric M. Meyers. New York: Oxford University.<\/p>\n
Shea. William H.<\/b>
1988 Numeirah (sic.). Archaeology and Biblical Research<\/i> 14: 12\u201323. <\/p>\n
Speiser. Ephraim A.<\/b>
1964 Genesis.<\/i> New York: Doubleday. <\/p>\n
Strange, John<\/b>
1999 Bible Alias<\/i> New York: American Bible Society. <\/p>\n
Team Media<\/b>
1998 The Collegeville Atlas of the Bible.<\/i> Collegeville MN: Liturgical. <\/p>\n
Tubb, Jonathan N.<\/b>
1997 Sa\u2018idryeh. Tell es-. Pp. 452-55 in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the War East<\/i> 4. dd. Eric M. Meyers. New York: Oxford University. <\/p>\n
Walton. John H.<\/b>
1978 Chronological and Background Chart of the Old Testament,<\/i> Grand Rapids MI: Zondervan. <\/p>\n
Wood. Bryant G.<\/b>
1999 The Discovery of the Sin Cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Bible and Spade<\/i> 12:66\u201380.
2005 The Rise and Fall of the 13th-Century Exodus-Conquest theory Journal of die Evangelical Theological Society<\/i> 48: 475\u201389.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Bryant G. Wood Steven Collins maintains that Tall el-Hammam, ca. 8 mi (13 km) northeast of the Dead Sea. should he identified as Sodom based on four criteria: geography, chronology, stratigraphy and architecture (2007). We will examine his arguments in each of those four areas. Geographical Evidence for Locating Sodom Biblical References Collins begins by … Continue reading “LOCATING
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