Attitudes
Attitudes
ati-tuds: Customs change slowly in Bible lands. This becomes clear by a comparison of the many references found in the Bible and other literatures of the Orient with existing circumstances and conditions. The same fact is attested by the pictures illustrating daily life upon the monuments of Assyria, Babylonia and Egypt in the countries between the Nile and the Tigris. Many of these, dating back to the second or third millennium before our era, prove conclusively that the same practices and usages as are now common among the inhabitants of those lands were in vogue in the days of Hammurabi and the early rulers of Egypt. This is especially true of matters pertaining to the worship of the gods, and of the attitudes or positions assumed in homage and respect to monarchs and those in authority.
The many references found in the Bible to these same usages prove that the Hebrews too had much in common with the nations around them, not only in creed, but also in the mode of worship, as well as in general everyday etiquette. This is not strange, at least among the Semitic peoples, for there is more or less agreement, even among all nations, ancient and modern, in the attitude of the worshipper in temple and high place.
The outward tokens of respect and honor shown by Orientals to their superiors, above all to monarchs, may seem exaggerated. But when we consider that the king was God’s vicegerent upon the earth or over a certain country, and in some sense Divine, worthy even of adoration, it is not strange that almost equal homage should be paid him as the gods themselves. The higher the person was in power, the greater the honor and respect shown him. It is natural, therefore, that God, the Lord of Lords, and the King of Kings should be the recipient of the highest reverence and adoration.
There are several Hebrew words used to describe the various attitudes assumed by those who worshipped Yahweh and heathen gods; these same words are constantly employed in speaking of the homage or respect paid to rulers and persons in authority. The most common terms are those rendered to stand, to bow, to kneel and prostrate oneself or fall on the face. It is not always easy to differentiate between them, for often one passes imperceptibly into the other. No doubt several attitudes were assumed by the worshipper or suppliant while offering a prayer or petition. The intensity, the ardor or earnestness with which such a petition or prayer was presented would naturally have much to do with the words and posture of the petitioner, though the same expression might be employed to designate his posture or attitude. Thus to fall on the face might be done in many different ways. The Moslems observe a regular course of nine or more different postures in their worship. These are more or less faithfully observed by the faithful everywhere. It is almost certain that the Hebrews in common with other Orientals observed and went through almost every one of these attitudes as they presented themselves in prayer to Yahweh. We shall call attention to just four postures: (1) standing, (2) bowing, (3) kneeling, and (4) falling on the face or prostration.
1. Standing
This was one of the very common postures in prayer to God, especially in public worship. It is still customary to stand either erect or with slightly bowed head while offering the public prayers in the synagogue. This is likewise the common practice of a large number of Christians in this and other lands, and no doubt such a posture is sanctioned by the example of the early church and primitive Christians, who, in turn, adopted the usages of the Jewish church. The same practice was in vogue among the Persians, Egyptians and Babylonians and other ancient people as is evidenced by their sculptures and paintings. The famous stela of Hammurabi shows this great king in a standing position as he receives the famous Code from the sun-god. There are numerous Babylonian and Assyrian seals on which are pictured a priest in a standing position before the throne of Sin or Shamash. In this attitude with uplifted hands, he is sometimes accompanied by the person in whose behalf prayers are made. A beautiful rock sculpture at Ibriz, Southeast of Eregli in Lycaonia, shows us a king or satrap in a standing position, worshipping a local Baal. E. J. Davies, the discoverer of this Hittite monument, in describing it, makes this remark, which we cannot refrain from inserting, inasmuch as it gives another proof of the unchangeable East. He says: He (the god) wears boots turned up in front, and bound round the leg above the ankle by thongs and a piece of leather reaching half-way up the shin, exactly as it is worn to this day by the peasants of the plain of Cilicia round Adana. King Solomon, during at least a portion of his prayer at the dedication of the temple, stood before the altar with his hands stretched out toward heaven (1Ki 8:22). Numerous allusions to prayer in the New Testament prove that standing was the common posture (Mat 6:5; Mar 11:25; Luk 18:11).
What has been said about standing while praying to God is true also of the attitude of the petitioner when paying homage or making an entreaty to man. The Assyrian and Babylonian monuments are full of evidence on this point; we shall give only one illustration: One of the sculptures describing the siege of Lachish by Sennacherib represents the monarch as seated upon his throne while the conquered stand or kneel before him. Joseph stood before Pharaoh (Gen 41:46). Solomon’s advisers stood before him (2Ch 10:6) and so did those of Rehoboam (2Ch 10:8). The same attitude was assumed by suppliants in the Persian court (Est 5:2; Est 8:4). The same is true of Babylonia (Dan 1:19; Dan 2:2).
2. Kneeling
Though standing seems to have been the usual attitude, it is quite certain that kneeling was common at all times. The monuments afford abundant proof for this statement; so too the many references in the Bible. Solomon not only stood before the altar on the occasion of dedicating his famous temple, but he also knelt (1Ki 8:54; 2Ch 6:13). Josephus, describing this ceremony, says that the king at the conclusion of his prayer prostrated himself on the ground and in this posture continued worshipping for a long time. Ezra fell upon his knees as he addressed Yahweh in prayer (Ezr 9:5). Daniel, too, knelt upon his knees and prayed three times a day (Dan 6:10). The same practice was observed by the apostles and the early church; for we read that Stephen (Act 7:60), Peter (Act 9:40), Paul (Act 20:36) and others (Act 21:5) assumed this posture as they prayed.
3. Bowing
As already stated, it is not always easy to determine the exact posture of those described as kneeling or bowing, for this varied with the temperament of the suppliant and the intensity of his prayer or supplication. Eleazer when sent to select a wife for his master, Isaac, bowed before Yahweh (Gen 24:26). The Hebrews on leaving Egypt were commanded to bow to Yahweh (Exo 11:8; Exo 12:27, Exo 12:28). The injunction of the Psalmist shows the prevalence of this posture in prayer: O come, let us worship and bow down (Psa 95:6). Isaiah refers to the same when he says: Every knee shall bow to God (Isa 45:23). Paul also bowed his knees to the Father (Eph 3:14). The same practice obtained among the heathen nations as they worshipped their gods or idols. Naaman bowed before Rimmon, his god. The numerous prohibitions in the Hebrew Scriptures against bowing down at the shrines of the nations around Israel prove the prevalence of this method of adoration. Indeed, one of the ten commandments is directed explicitly against bowing to or worshipping idols (Exo 20:5). The same prohibition was often repeated, as by Joshua (Jos 23:7) and the author of 2 Ki (2Ki 17:35). Unfortunately, Israel did transgress in this very thing, for while still in the Wilderness they bowed down to the gods of Moab (Num 25:2) and again after their settlement in Canaan (Jdg 2:12). Amaziah bowed down to the gods of Edom (2Ch 25:14).
Like deference was also shown to angels or supernatural beings. Thus, Abraham bows to the three angels as they appear to him at Mamre (Gen 18:2). And so did Lot at Sodom (Gen 19:1). Joshua fell on his face before the prince of the host of Yahweh (Jos 5:14). This attitude was a common one to Ezekiel as he saw his wonderful visions (Eze 1:28; Eze 3:23, and often). Daniel when he saw Gabriel in a vision was afraid and fell upon his face (Dan 8:17). The three disciples had the same experience on the Mount of Transfiguration (Mat 17:6).
Monarchs and persons of superior rank were the recipients of like honors and marks of respect. Joseph’s brothers bowed as they came into his presence, thinking that he was an Egyptian of high rank (Gen 43:28). Bathsheba bowed to King David when she entered his presence in the interest of their son Solomon (1Ki 1:16, 1Ki 1:31). But such deference was not shown to monarchs only, for Jacob and his household bowed down seven times to the irate Esau (Gen 33:3). Abigail fell on her face before David as he was marching to avenge himself upon Nabal, her husband (1Sa 25:23). David too when he went to meet Jonathan fell on his face to the ground and bowed himself three times (1Sa 20:41). The Shunammite woman, as she came to entreat Elisha for the life of her boy, bowed before the prophet (2Ki 4:37). The same custom prevailed not only among the Persians, as is evident from the Book of Esther and the monuments at Persepolis, but also in Babylonia, Assyria and other countries.
4. Prostration
This was but a more intense way of showing one’s regard or of emphasizing a petition. It was the token of abject subjection or the deepest reverence. Abraham, when Yahweh appeared to him and promised him a son, with profoundest gratitude and greatest joy fell prostrate on his face (Gen 17:3). Moses and Aaron were often found in this posture (Num 14:5; Num 16:4, Num 16:45; Num 20:6). Elijah, eccentric in many ways, cast himself upon the earth and placed his face between his knees (compare 1Ki 18:42). Job fell on the ground and worshipped Yahweh (Job 1:20). Such homage was often shown to our Saviour (Mar 5:22; Joh 11:32), not because men realized that He was God in the flesh, but simply as a mark of respect for a great teacher and miracle-worker. It is to be noticed th at our Saviour never refused such homage, but accepted it as pertinent and proper. Did He not realize that honor and worship Divine belonged to Him, He would have refused them just as Peter did when Cornelius fell down at his feet and worshipped him (Act 10:25) or as the angel in Rev 19:10, who said to John, prostrate at his feet, See thou do it not: I am a fellow servant, etc. See ADORATION, III.
Fuente: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
Attitudes
The allusions in Scripture to attitudes and postures expressive of adoration, supplication, and respect, are very numerous. From these we learn enough to perceive that the usages of the Hebrews in. this respect were very nearly, if not altogether, the same as those which are still practiced in the East, and which the paintings and sculptures of Egypt show to have been of old employed in that country. These sources supply ample materials for illustration, which it may be well to arrange under those heads into which such acts naturally divide themselves.
Adoration and Homage
The Muslims in their prayers throw themselves successively, and according to an established routine, into the various postures (nine in number) which they deem the most appropriate to the several parts of the service. For the sake of reference and comparison, we have introduced them all at the head of this article; as we have no doubt that the Hebrews employed on one occasion or another nearly all the various postures which the Muslims exhibit on one occasion. This is the chief difference. In public and common worship the Hebrews prayed standing; but in their separate and private acts of worship they assumed the position which, according to their modes of doing homage or showing respect, seemed to them the most suitable to their present feelings or objects. It would appear, however, that some form of kneeling was most usual in private devotions (1Ki 8:54; Ezr 9:5; Dan 6:10; 2Ch 6:13).
Fig. 67Muslim Forms of Worship
Standing
Fig. 68Egyptian Worship
Standing in public prayer is still the practice of the Jews. This posture was adopted from the synagogue by the primitive Christians; and is still maintained by the Oriental Churches. This appears, from their monuments, to have been the custom also among the ancient Persians and Egyptians, although the latter certainly sometimes kneeled before their gods. In the Muslim worship, four of the nine positions (fig. 67, No. 1, 2, 4, 8) are standing ones; and that posture which is repeated in three out of these four (fig. 67, No. 2, 4, 8), may be pointed out as the proper Oriental posture of reverential standing, with folded hands. It is the posture in which people stand before kings and great men.
Fig. 69Attitudes of Worship
While in this attitude of worship, the hands were sometimes stretched forth towards heaven in supplication or invocation (1Ki 8:22; 2Ch 6:12; 2Ch 6:29; Isa 1:15). This was perhaps not so much the conventional posture (fig. 67, No. 1 in the Muslim series), as the more natural posture of standing adoration with outspread hands, which we observe on the Egyptian monuments. The uplifting of one hand (the right) only in taking an oath was so common, that to say, ‘I have lifted up my hand,’ was equivalent to ‘I have sworn’ (Gen 14:22; comp. 41:44; Deu 32:40). This posture was also common among other ancient nations; and we find examples of it in the sculptures of Persia (fig. 69, No. 1) and Rome (fig. 69, No. 2).
Kneeling
Fig. 70Prostrate in Worship
Kneeling is very often described as a posture of worship (1Ki 8:54; Ezr 9:5; Dan 6:10; 2Ch 6:13; comp. 1Ki 19:18; Luk 22:41; Act 7:60). This is still an Oriental custom, and three forms of it occur (fig. 67, No. 5, 6, 9) in the Muslim devotions. It was also in use, although not very frequent, among the ancient Egyptians; who likewise, as well as the Hebrews (Exo 34:8; 2Ch 29:29; Isa 1:15), sometimes prostrated themselves upon the ground. The usual mode of prostration among the Hebrews by which they expressed the most intense humiliation, was by bringing not only the body but the head to the ground.
Fig. 71Kneeling on knee, and smiting breast
The ordinary mode of prostration at the present time, and probably anciently, is that shown in one of the postures of Muslim worship (fig. 67, No. 5), in which the body is not thrown flat upon the ground, but rests upon the knees, arms, and head. In order to express devotion, sorrow, compunction, or humiliation, the Israelites threw dust upon their heads (Jos 7:6; Job 2:12; Lam 2:10; Eze 24:7; Rev 18:19), as was done also by the ancient Egyptians, and is still done by the modern Orientals. Under similar circumstances it was usual to smite the breast (Luk 18:13). This was also a practice among the Egyptians, and the monuments at Thebes exhibit persons engaged in this act while they kneel upon one knee.
Fig. 72Respectfully Sitting
In 1Ch 17:16 we are told that ‘David the king came and sat before the Lord,’ and in that posture gave utterance to eloquent prayer, or rather thanksgiving, which the sequel of the chapter contains. Those unacquainted with Eastern manners are surprised at this. But there is a mode of sitting in the East which is highly respectful and even reverential. It is that which occurs in the Muslim forms of worship (fig. 67, No. 9). The person first kneels, and then sits back upon his heels. Attention is also paid to the position of the hands, which they cross, fold, or hide in the opposite sleeves. The variety of this formal sitting, which the following figure represents, is highly respectful. The prophet Elijah must have been in this or some other similar posture when he inclined himself so much forward in prayer that his head almost touched his knees (1Ki 18:42).
Supplication
Fig. 73Supplication
Supplication, when addressed externally to man, cannot possibly be exhibited in any other forms than those which are used in supplication to God. Uplifted hands, kneeling, prostration, are common to both. On the Egyptian monuments, suppliant captives, of different nations, are represented as kneeling or standing with outspread hands. Prostration, or falling at the feet of a person, is often mentioned in Scripture as an act of supplication or of reverence, or of both (1Sa 25:24; 2Ki 4:37; Est 8:3; Mat 18:29; Mat 28:9; Mar 5:22; Luk 8:41; Joh 11:32; Act 10:25). Sometimes in this posture, or with the knees bent as before indicated, the Orientals bring their forehead to the ground, and before resuming an erect position either kiss the earth, or the feet, or border of the garment of the king or prince before whom they are allowed to appear. There is no doubt that a similar practice existed among the Jews (Mat 9:20; Luk 7:38; Luk 7:45). Kissing the hand of another as a mark of affectionate respect, we do not remember as distinctly mentioned in Scripture. But as the Jews had the other forms of Oriental salutation, we may conclude that they had this also, although it does not happen to have been specially noticed. Kissing one’s own hand is mentioned as early as the time of Job (Job 31:27), as an act of homage to the heavenly bodies. It was properly a salutation, and as such an act of adoration to them. The Romans in like manner kissed their hands as they passed the temples or statues of their gods [ADORATION].
Bowing
Fig. 74Bowing
It appears from 1Sa 10:1; 1Ki 19:18; Psa 2:12; that there was a peculiar kiss of homage, the character of which is not indicated. It was probably that kiss upon the forehead expressive of high respect which was formerly, if not now, in use among the Bedouins.
Fig. 75Kneeling for a Blessing
In the Scriptures there are different words descriptive of various postures of respectful bowing; as to incline or bow down the head, to bend down the body very low, to bend the knee, also to bless. These terms indicate a conformity with the existing usages of the East, in which the modes of bowing are equally diversified, and, in all likelihood, the same. These are1. touching the lips and the forehead with the right hand, with or without an inclination of the head or of the body, and with or without previously touching the ground; 2. placing the right hand upon the breast, with or without an inclination of the head or of the body; 3. bending the body very low, with folded arms; 4. bending the body and resting the hands on the knees: this is one of the postures of prayer, and is indicative of the highest respect in the presence of kings and princes.
It appears to have been usual for a person to receive a blessing in a kneeling posture. We know also that the person who gave the blessing laid his hands upon the head of the person blessed (Gen 48:14). This is exactly the case at the present day in the East, and a picture of the existing custom would furnish a perfect illustration of the patriarchal form of blessing. This may be perceived from the annexed engraving.