Hellenistic And Biblical Greek
Hellenistic And Biblical Greek
1. Definition.-The term Biblical Greek denotes the language of the Greek versions of the OT, and more especially the Septuagint , as also that of the NT, with which may be associated the Apocrypha and the works of the Apostolic Fathers. This group of writings, however, is separated from the world of Hellenic culture not so much by any peculiarity of language as by the ideas which find expression in them. In point of fact, Biblical Greek is a deposit of the widely-diffused Hellenistic language-the so-called Koine.
2. The term Koine.-This term is used to signify the Gr. language in its development from the time of Alexander the Great to the close of the ancient period, excluding, of course, the older dialects so far as they survived at all, and excluding also the language of the Atticists (2nd-5th cent. a.d.), who sought to revive the Attic form of speech, but, as children of their age, were unable to free themselves wholly from the influence of the living, i.e. the spoken, tongue. In designating the common language of the Hellenistic period by the single word Koine, we are but following the usage of the ancient grammarians, who employed the expression to differentiate the language used by all from Attic, Ionic, Doric, and aeolic.* [Note: A. Maidhof, Zur Begriffsbestimmung der Koine, Wrzburg, 1912, and the criticism of Thumb, in Monatsschrift fr hhere Schtulen, Berlin, 1913, p. 392 ff.] But as the words , , were not employed by the ancients in a uniform way, we may venture to take the term Koine as applying both to the spoken tongue and to its literary form. The literary Koine, of which Polybius may be called the most typical representative, is a compromise between the spoken Koine and the older literary language. This holds good of every text written in the Koine, such works differing among themselves only as regards the degree in which the two elements are intermingled. The so-called Atticists, i.e. the grammarians, such as Moeris, who taught the rules of correct Attic, usually distinguished such words and forms of the Koine as they rejected, by the term , as contrasted with the , the linguistic forms they approved of; and hence means to speak the Hellenistic language, and the of Act 6:1; Act 9:29 are Hellenistic-speaking Jews (possibly applied also to other Orientals).
3. The geographical domain of the Koine.-The native soil of Biblical Greek, i.e. Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor, forms but a part of the great Hellenistic domain, the furthest boundaries of which were nearly coincident with those of Alexanders Empire. The hellenization of those parts of this area which were originally non-Hellenic was, of course, not uniform. It was most complete in Asia Minor, which in the Middle Ages became the home of Byzantine-Greek culture. Even in the Roman Imperial period Asia Minor was almost entirely Greek, and dominated by Greek civilization; nor is this contravened by the fact that the old indigenous languages, such as Phrygian, Cappadocian, etc., were still spoken sporadically until the 5th and 6th centuries. Lycaonian is referred to as a spoken language not only in Act 14:11,* [Note: J. H. Moulton, Einleitung, p. 9.] but, as late as the 6th cent., in the Legend of St. Martha, while the Celtic dialect of the Galatians was still a living vernacular in the time of Jerome. Holl [Note: Das Fortleben der Volkssprachen in Kleinasien in nachchristlicher Zeit, in Hermes, xliii. [1908] 240 ff.] rather overestimates the importance of the evidences he gives of this fact, for the dialects in question occupied a position in Hellenic Asia Minor not very different from that of Albanian in Greece at the present day; and, in fact, the importance of these tongues is hardly to be compared with that of Welsh in England, the Phrygian dialect alone surviving in a few short texts (sepulchral inscriptions) dating from the Imperial period. The influence of the ancient languages of Asia Minor upon Greek (i.e. the Koine) was likewise of the slightest. [Note: Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus, p. 139 ff.] In Syria, as in Egypt, Greek was probably confined in the main to urban districts. In the numerous Hellenistic towns situated between the Phnician coast and a line to the east of the Lake of Gennesaret and the Jordan-cities like Antioch, Acco, Damascus, and Gadara-the Greek language prevailed, as also did Greek administration, law, and culture. As regards Jewish Palestine, on the other hand, it can hardly be said that there was any real hellenization there at all. The Jews certainly learned Greek as the medium of intercourse and commerce and also for literary purposes, but they retained their Aramaic mother-tongue as well. Jesus and His apostles spoke Aramaic, and preached in Aramaic, though they may not have been ignorant of Greek; as a matter of fact, the ability to use more than one language is not uncommon in the East to-day, even among the lower classes. [Note: On the diffusion of Hellenistic Greek cf. Thumb, op. cit. 102 ff.; Mahaffy, The Progress of Hellenism in Alexanders Empire, Chicago, 1905; on the language or Jesus see, most recently, Moulton, op. cit. p. 10 f.] From the fact that Jesus and the apostles spoke Aramaic it is to be inferred that the and the earliest records of His life were originally composed in Aramaic, and here too there emerges a special problem regarding the character of NT Greek (as also the Greek of the Septuagint )-a problem which will engage our attention below. But the general character of Biblical Greek can be understood only in relation to its basis in the Koine, and accordingly we must here deal first of all with the sources, the origin, and the character of the latter.
4. Sources for the Koine.-The Koine was a natural outgrowth of classical Greek, yet in its written form, as has been said, it exhibits a compromise between, the traditional literary language and the vernacular of the time, and accordingly the extant texts of the Hellenistic period afford at most but indirect evidence as to the true character of the vulgar tongue. It is only what is new in these texts, i.e. what differs from Attic, that we can without hesitation claim for the living language, while, as regards the element in which the written Koine agrees with Attic, we are uncertain to what extent it is to be ascribed to tradition. Nor are the various texts and classes of texts all of the same value for our knowledge of the true forms of the vernacular.
(1) This holds good in a peculiar degree even of the literary productions of the Hellenistic period. The Septuagint , the NT, and the earliest Christian writings approximate very closely, in a linguistic respect, to the contemporary papyri and inscriptions, and may as a whole be regarded as the most faithful literary reflex of the spoken tongue, while the Atticism which prevailed about the same time took an entirely different direction, and sought to purge literature of all admixture with the vernacular. But even the Atticists, of whom Lucian of Samosata was the most brilliant representative, were unable, with regard to either vocabulary or syntax, to free themselves wholly from the influence of the speech of their day.* [Note: W. Schmid, Der Atticismus in seinen Hauptvertretern, 5 vols., Stuttgart, 1887-97.] But they succeeded in arresting the movement that from the time of Xenophon and Aristotle had been tending to bring the literary language into line with the cosmopolitan development of Attic, that is to say, with the Koine, a development which had been followed even by the New Attic Comedy. The language of Polybius is closely akin to that of contemporary inscriptions; he does justice to the demands which the spoken tongue in its development laid upon literary diction. The philosopher Epicurus, [Note: P. Linde, De Epicuri vocabulis ab optima Atthids alienis, Breslau, 1906.] and Teles the Cynic, [Note: 3rd cent. b.c.; cf. Teletis reliquiae, ed. O. Hense, Tbingen, 1909.] as also Philo of Byzantium, the engineer (if he was a contemporary of Archimedes), [Note: M. Arnim, De Philonis Byzantii dicendi geners, Greifswald, 1912.] may be regarded as the immediate forerunners of Polybius.
(2) Our best sources for the common tongue, however, are the papyri of Egypt and the inscriptions-more especially those or Asia Minor. A comparison of these two documentary groups shows that the Hellenistic Greek of Egypt differs in no essential respect from that of Asia Minor, and we may therefore safely use the copious discoveries of papyri as throwing light upon the general character of the Greek spoken in the age in which they were written (for details see below). Of papyri and inscriptions alike it may be said that, the less educated the writers, the more faithfully do they reflect the current speech, and accordingly we find great disparity between, e.g., the documents of the Pergamenian State and the sepulchral inscriptions of the common people; or, again, between the records of the Egyptian government-offices and the letters written by simple folk. These differences have not yet been studied in detail.
An excellent survey of these sources, with copious references to the literature, is found in Deissmann, Licht vom Osten2, p. 6ff. (Eng. translation 2, 1911, p. 9ff.). Detailed investigation of their language has made remarkable progress in recent years. (a) Inscriptions: E. Schwyzer (Schweizer), Grammatik der per gamenischen Inschriften, Berlin, 1898; E. Nachmanson, Lauts und Formen der magnetischen Inschriften, Upsala, 1903; Dienstbach, De Titulorum Prienensium sonis, Marburg, 1910. A special study of the numerous Christian inscriptions of Asia Minor would be of great advantage in relation to the NT. (b) Papyri: E. Mayser, Grammatik der griechischen Papyri aus der Ptolemerzeit, Leipzig, 1906; W. Crnert, Memoria graeca Herculanensis, Leipzig, 1903. (c) From the mass of epigraphic material are to be distinguished, as a special class, the imprecatory tablets, which are composed in a very low type of speech. They have been collected by R. Wnsch in the Appendix to the C1A, and by Audollent, Defixionum tabellae, Paris, 1904 (cf. Thumb, in Indogerm. Forsch. Anzeiger, xviii. [1905-06] 41ff.); as yet only the Attic tablets have been studied philologically: cf. E. Schwyzer, Die Vulgrsprache der attischen Fluchtafeln, in Neue Jahrbcher fr das klassische Altertum, v. [1900] 244ff.; Rabehl, De sermone defixionum attic., Berlin, 1906.
(3) Excellent witnesses to the nature of the vernacular are to be found also in the Graeco-Latin conversation-books or colloquial guides () and glossaries used for the purpose of learning either language, as e.g. the Colloquium Pseudo-Dositheanum* [Note: Krumbacher, in the Festschrift fr W. von Christ, Munich, 1891.] and the Hermeneumata Pseudo-Dositheana. [Note: G. Goetz, in the Corpus glossariorum, iii. [Leipzig, 1892]; cf. J. David, in Comment. philologae Ienenses, v. [do. 1894] 197 ff.] The abundant Greek material found in the Corpus glossariorum latinorum still awaits expert investigation; it yields much fresh information regarding the vocabulary of the colloquial language.
(4) The remaining sources for the Koine are of second-hand authority, but are not less important. Thus we have the references of the Atticizing grammarians of the Imperial period, as in the of Moeris, extracts from the grammarian Phrynichus, and the . The object of these writings was to formulate rules for the correct use of classical Attic, and they contrast the latter with the common language. What they reject belongs to the Hellenistic vernacular, as e.g. the forms (for ), (= ), (), (instead of ); what they defend and explain is alien to it, as e.g. , , (instead of ).
(5) We have another source in the Greek elements which have found their way into Latin, Gothic, Ecclesiastical Slavonic, and Oriental languages. These elements exhibit the features of the language current at the time of their adoption. The Greek words in Gothic, and especially in Old Slavic, [Note: Vasmer, Graeco-Slavic Studies (Russ.), 2 pts., St. Petersburg, 1906-07.] reflect certain phonetic characteristics of the Greek current in the North, while those in Armenian, Rabbinical Hebrew, and Coptic exhibit features of the Greek spoken in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. These foreign sources have contributed much to the Hellenistic vocabulary, which is enriched not only by fresh meanings, but also by new words and new forms. The Greek elements preserved in the Oriental sources are, as we should expect, of special importance for the study of Biblical Greek; but so far Armenian alone has been thoroughly studied in its bearings on the history of the Greek language. [Note: Thumb, Die griechische Elements in Armenischen, in Byzant. Zeitschrift, ix. [1900] 388 ff. For the other languages, cf. S. Krauss, Griechische und lateinische Lehnwrter in Talmud, Midrasch und Targum, 2 vols., Berlin, 1898-99; also Thumb, Indogerm. Forsch. Anzeiger, vi. [1896] 56 ff., xi. [1900] 96 ff.; Perles, in Byzant. Zeitschrift, viii. [1899] 539 ff., x. [1901] 300 ff.; A. Schlatter, Verkanntes Griechisch, in Beitrge zur Frderung christlicher Theologie, iv. 4 [1900], 49 ff.; Fiebig, Das Griechische der Mischna, in ZNTW ix. [1908]; O. von Lemm, Griechische und lateinische Wrter im Koptischen, in Bulletin de lAcadmie de St. Petersbourg, 5th ser. xiii. i [1900] 45 ff.; Wessely, Die griechische Lehnwrter der sahidischen und bobeirischen Psalmenversion, in Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie, liv. [1909]; Rahlfs, Griechische Wrter im Koptischen, in SBAW, 1912, p. 1036 ff.]
(6) The two foregoing sources are surpassed in the value of their contributions by Modern Greek. For the student of the Koine, and therefore also for the investigator of Biblical Greek, a knowledge of Modern Greek is as necessary as a knowledge of the Romance languages for the investigator of vernacular Latin.* [Note: Thumb, Value of Mod. Gr. for the Study of Ancient Greek, in Class. Quarterly, viii. [1914] 181 ff.] The more thorough the study of the modern tongue, the greater the gain for its earlier phase. for Modern Greek, with its dialects (exclusive, however, of the Tsaconic spoken in the Parnon Mts., a descendant of the Laconian dialect), is a natural development of the Koine, and its origins are to be sought therein. The knowledge of Modern Greek, accordingly, enables us to understand many features of the Koine, and to put a proper estimate upon its recorded forms. With the help of the modern language we may reconstruct its Hellenistic basis and thereby supplement in many points the knowledge derived from the contemporary Hellenistic texts. The character of the Koine as a whole is in fact to be inferred from the character of Modern Greek; for, since the dialects of the latter are to be traced, not to the various types of the ancient language, such as Doric, aeolic, and Ionic, but to the Koine, the Koine, the direct deposit of which we find in the inscriptions and the papyri, must have supplanted the ancient dialects, and must have been a common language in the proper sense, i.e. a language spoken by all, as is affirmed by the ancient grammarians. And what holds good also of the language as a whole, holds good of its elements in detail. Thus certain forms in Hellenistic documents-as e.g. , and the like, in Manuscripts of the Septuagint and other texts-are proved to have belonged to the spoken Koine by the fact that they survive in Modern Greek. This is true also of words like (Mod. Gr. ), which is rejected by the Atticists, and of Lat. loan-words like (in inscriptions; Mod. Gr. ). Some Latin loanwords, as e.g. () (hospitium), house, may of course he regarded as having been introduced into the Koine not later than the close of the ancient period. The Hellenistic substitution of for the infinitive culminates in the Mod. Gr. loss of the infinitive, and it is therefore quite wrong to regard, e.g., every in Biblical Greek as having the force of the classical final -a fact which has a direct bearing upon biblical interpretation. Thus the study of Modern Greek may likewise be of considerable service to the biblical scholar, and may often enable him to decide a doubtful case. If, e.g., the form is attested as Hellenistic by the ancients, while the NT has , the Mod. Gr. (pron. yal) shows that the NT form too belonged to the Koine.
Moreover, the text of the Bible will occasionally be elucidated by a knowledge of Modern Greek. Thus Wellhausen (Das Ev. Matthaei, Berlin, 1904) conjectures that the of Mat 14:15 means, not the time is past, but the time is advanced-an explanation which is supported by the Mod. Gr. use of in , above; while the Greek writer Pallis renders the of Mar 7:19 not by meats, but in the sense of the homonymous Mod. Gr. word, i.e. as stench, filth-an interpretation which at least merits the attention of exegetes. Modern Greek also throws light upon the question of the Semitisms in Biblical Greek (see below). [Note: On the subject of this paragraph cf. Thumb, Die griech. Sprache in Zeitalter des Hellenismus, p. 10 ff.; also in Neue Jahrbcher fr das klass. Altertum, xvii. [1906] 247 ff.; A. Pallis, A few Notes on the Gospels, based chiefly on Modern Greek, Liverpool, 1903 (to be read with discrimination).] The projected thesaurus or idiotikon of Modern Greek, the compilation of which is being subsidized by the Greek Government, will accordingly prove of great service in the study of Biblical Greek, especially as regards the vocabulary [Note: Aids to the study of Modern Greek: G. N. Hatzidakis, Einleitung in die neugr. Grammatik, Leipzig, 1892; Thumb, Handbook of the Modern Greek Vernacular, tr. S. Angus, Edinburgh, 1912 (with a bibliographical appendix).]
5. Origin of the Koine.-In its essential character the Koine is the natural development of Attic. As early as the time of the Delian Confederation, Attic had spread beyond the confines of its native region, and Ionic elements-an important feature of the Koine-had already begun to find their way into the Attic vernacular.* [Note: Xenoph. De Republ. Athen. ii. 8.] In the Attic spoken outside Attica-Great Attic, as we might call it-the process of rejuvenescence and fusion was much more rapid, and it was here that the foundations of the Koine were laid. [Note: the researches of J. Schlageter in his Zur Laut- und Formenlehre der ausserhalb Attikas gefundenen attischen Inschriften, Programm, Freiburg i. B., 1908, and Der Wortschatz der ausserhalb Attikas gefundenen attischen Inschriften, Strassburg, 1912.] The resultant modification of Attic appears most clearly in the vocabulary. Similar features had already manifested themselves in the diction of Xenophon and the New Attic Comedy. This modified Attic was used at the Macedonian court before the time of Alexander the Great. But it was in reality the conquests of Alexander and the institution of kingdoms by his successors that diffused the new idiom throughout the Oriental world, and made it the universal language of Hellenism. It is nevertheless quite wrong to assert that this language was created by the Macedonians. The Macedonian contribution is barely discernible, and cannot in any case have been large; it perhaps included the suffix – in . In this process of expansion the Attic, as might be expected, lost some of its characteristic features. Thus the found in most of the dialects, including Ionic, more and more superseded the Attic (which is almost obsolete in Mod. Gr.), and non-Attic forms showing intermingled with forms showing . Hence prevails-in accordance with the papyri-in the Septuagint , which, however, still retains and ; while we also find here and (rarely) , , and (rarely) . In the NT likewise occurs rarely, while e.g. and are both in use. That the use of was not due to the influence of the literary language is shown by Mod. Gr. alongside of (= ).
The Koine developed more rapidly in the hellenized lands outside Greece than upon its native soil, where the indigenous dialects offered some degree of resistance to its growth. But by the time when the uniform Ionic-Attic alphabet was adopted (400-350 b.c.), the Attic was asserting its power everywhere, and from the 4th cent. b.c. till about the 2nd cent. a.d. the dialects were gradually dispossessed, and at last swallowed up, by the Koine; in its foreign domains, however, the Koine had prevailed from the outset, and had thus gained a marked ascendancy alike as regards culture and as regards the numbers of those who spoke it. The absorption of the dialects did not proceed everywhere at the same pace. The Ionic succumbed most rapidly; the Doric resisted longest: in the Doric area, in fact, there emerged first of all a Doric Koine, which wedged itself also into the non-Doric Arcadia, between the ancient Arcadian dialect and the common Attic tongue. The various aspects of this whole process of development may be traced in the inscriptions. In many localities, as e.g. Crete and Rhodes, the gradual subsidence of dialectic forms which is traceable in the inscriptions reflects the changes in the living language. In other parts, as e.g. Botia, the inscriptions reveal a marked linguistic break, thus indicating either that the local dialect, though no longer spoken, was kept alive for a time as a literary language, or that the Koine had been introduced as a written language before the dialect had entirely disappeared. [Note: Thumb, Die griech. Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus, p. 28 ff.; Wahrmann, Prolegomena zu einer Geschichte der grichischen Dialekte im Zeitalter des Hellenismus, Programm, Vienna, 1907; Kieckers, Das Eindringen der Koine in Kreta, in Indogerm. Forsch. xxvii. [1910] 72 ff.; Buttenwieser, Zur Geschichte des botischen Dialekts, in ib. xxviii. [1911] 1 ff.]
The process of absorption, of course, could not but react upon the Koine itself. But it is quite wrong to suppose, with P. Kretschmer (Die Entstehung der Koine), that the Koine arose from a manifold intermingling of the various Gr. dialects. This hypothesis finds no real support either in the documents of the Koine or in Modern Greek. Thus, to take but a single instance, Kretschmer, in citing the Mod. Gr. accentuation in (=), (=) as a survival of the ancient Doric accentuation, overlooks the fact that other Mod. Gr. accentual changes of the same kind, as in , , have nothing to do with Doric at all; so that, if the latter forms are due to the operation of analogy (in conformity with , ), the examples cited by Kretschmer must be explained in the same way, i.e. as due to accentual shifting on the analogy of , . What took place in the districts of the ancient dialects was simply that the Koine was at first slightly coloured by the native idiom; and doubtless this local character showed itself still more plainly in the pronunciation, just as, e.g., the domicile of those who speak English-whether it he the north of England, the south of England, Scotland, or North America-can be inferred from their accent, even though they use the forms of the literary language. But the recognizable provincialisms of these local Koine types left only the slightest traces in the process of development towards Modern Greek, the reason being that they had no source of support outside their native region. Thus, e.g., as early as the 3rd cent. b.c. the veterans in the Arsinoite Nome of Egypt-men drawn from the most diverse quarters of Greece-wrote the Koine without any admixture of dialectic forms. Taken all in all, the elements derived from the local dialects of the Koine-apart from the Ionic-are confined to certain forms, such as , , , the preposition , and a few special words, as e.g. (attested for Cyrene and Sicily by the ancients).
We cannot easily determine the influence of the vocabularies of the various dialects, as these vocabularies are much less known to us than that of Attic. It was the Ionic dialect alone that, from the period of the Attic naval league, made a distinct contribution to the development of the Koine. But even in the case of Ionic, the extent of its dialectical influence cannot always be defined with precision. Thus, while forms like in the Septuagint and the NT, or in early Christian literature, seem to bear a genuinely Ionic character, they may well be later variations formed on the analogy of , ; , , and the like (cf. Moulton, Einleitung, p. 70f.). On the other hand, words like , , indicate clearly the phonetic form of Ionic, while, again, e.g. the aorist (in the papyri) instead of , and the preference for nouns in – are Ionic, or at all events not Attic, features. A specially characteristic indication of Ionic influence appears in the inflexion of nouns in -, – and -, -. Such syntactical usages as the preference of . to and the final infinitive (e.g. Mat 5:17 : , ) may likewise be shown to be Ionic. Of most importance, however, are the Ionic elements of the vocabulary, as it is these that give the Koine a character different from that of Attic. Thus a calculation of Sehlageter (Der Wortschatz, etc.) shows that the Attic inscriptions outside Attica (till 200 b.c.) contain 18% of Attic, 18% of new (Hellenistic), and a little over 6% of Ionic, but only 75% of distinctively Doric words. The proportion of Ionic words increases till about 250 b.c., and then decreases, so that the process of interfusion virtually ceased about the middle of the 3rd cent. b.c.
This feature of the Koine appears, as we might expect, also in Biblical Greek. Words like (in ), , (of the wind), , , , etc., in the Septuagint or NT are of Ionic origin. The Ionic element includes, further, the so-called poetical words of the Koine, i.e. Hellenistic words which formerly were to be found only in the poets, but which from the fact of their occurrence in papyrus texts concerned with matters of everyday life, and partly also from the fact of their survival in Modern Greek, are now seen to have belonged to the colloquial language. They include, e.g., , , , , , , in the Septuagint and the NT, and , , , , in the NT. Words of this class were imported, first, from the literary Ionic of the earlier period into the language of poetry, and then again from the vernacular Ionic of the later period into the Koine, and there was no direct link of connexion between the two processes.* [Note: There exist as yet no works (except those of Schlageter, mentioned above) dealing specially with the vocabulary of the papyri and the inscriptions. For the NT cf. T. Naegeli, Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus, Gttingen, 1905.] In the literary criticism of the Hellenistic writers, and especially of the biblical books, the facts just indicated yield an important guiding principle, viz. that their use of Ionic words does not argue a knowledge of, or any dependence upon, the earlier Ionic literature. The fact, e.g., that St. Luke makes use of medical terms found in Hippocrates and other physicians in no way implies a study of medical writings (Luke the physician), but only some acquaintance with the ordinary terminology of his age; many such medical words, indeed, as e.g. , , or (the surgeons needle) had passed into such general use in the vernacular that they prove nothing more than St. Lukes familiarity with the language of his time.
6. The influence of foreign languages.-The Koine may thus be defined as a development of Attic under the influence of Ionic. But as it spread to non-Hellenic lands, such as Asia Minor and Egypt, we must, finally, inquire as to the influence upon it of the languages of these countries, and as to foreign influence generally. Just as the Celts of Gaul exercised an influence upon the grammar and vocabulary of French (the vulgar Latin of Gaul), so, we might expect, would the Koine be affected by the native populations of Asia Minor and Egypt. The Greek spoken by these barbarians shows traces of their own manner of speech in the confusion of i and e sounds, and of tenues, mediae, and aspirates (, , ). Of such modification, however, very little found its way into the general development of Greek. Probably the pronunciation of as pende, and of as lambros, and the like, which make their first appearance in the dialect of Pamphylia, as also the development of into , arose in Asia Minor; the disregard of the distinction between long and short vowels ( and , etc.) perhaps in Asia Minor and Egypt. It was once more the vocabulary that was appreciably affected by foreign languages-the natural result of intercourse. Yet, after all-apart from the local use of Egyptian words in Egyptian Greek-the Oriental languages contributed to the Greek vocabulary in Hellenistic times hardly any more than in the classical period; the converse influence, e.g. in Rabbinical Hebrew, was incomparably greater. In Biblical Greek likewise, Semitic elements are scarcely more prominent than elsewhere. We note, e.g., and , which are of Persian origin; , , , , (Sem.), and , (Egypt.); but these words are also found in other documents of the Koine; while, of course, words like , , , , () found their way into the Greek world through the Jewish Christian sphere of ideas. It was form this sphere also that the names of the days of the week ( , , etc.), together with the week of seven days itself, came to the Greeks, and then spread to the rest of Europe.* [Note: Thumb, Die Namen der Wochentage im Griechischen, in Zeitschrift fr deutsche Wortforschung, i. [1900] 163 ff.; Schrer, Die siebentgige Woche in der christl. Kirche des ersten Jahrhunderts, in ZNTW vi. [1905] 1 ff.]
As contrasted with the Oriental, the Latin contribution forms a noticeable element in the Koine. Again, it is true, the grammatical influence was of the slightest. A number of suffixes, such as -, -, -, – (Lat. -atus, -arius, -ura, -ensis), were introduced into Greek through the medium of Lat. loan-words, and came to be used with Gr. stems. From the beginning of the Roman sway in Greece to the close of the ancient period, Roman politics and traffic imported a constantly increasing number of Latin words into Greek, and how effectively many of these became naturalized is shown by their survival in Modern Greek. In this respect likewise Biblical Greek reflects the conditions of the common Hellenistic language; in the NT we find, e.g., , , , , , , , , , , . That the influence of Latin on Palestinian Greek was by no means slight is attested indirectly by the number of Lat. words more or less naturalized in the Rabbinical literature, and, as appears from their form, introduced through the medium of Greek. Latinisms were occasionally formed by translation (loan-renderings), and just as the is called a in Luk 23:47, so we may regard (Mar 15:15) and as translations of Lat. satisfacere and operam dare respectively. The extra-biblical literature of early Christianity likewise shows the influence of Latin, and is as yet free from puristic tendencies; thus, e.g., Ignatius does not hesitate to adopt , (pledge) from military usage, or (legally valid copy) from the language of law. [Note: T. Eckinger, Die Orthographie latein. Wrter in griech. Inschriften, Munich, 1893; Wessely, Die lat. Elemente in der Grzitt der Papyri, in Wiener Studien, xxiv. [1902] 99ff., xxv. [1903] 40 ff.; D. Magie, De Romanorum iuris publici sacrique vocabulis sollemnibus in graecum sermonem conversis, Leipzig, 1905; and especially L. Hahn, Rom und Romanismus im griechisch-rmischen Osten, Leipzig, 1906 (reviewed by Thumb, Indogerm. Forsch. Anzeiger, xxii. [1907-08] 39 ff.), also Zum Sprachenkampf im rmischen Reich, in Philologus, Suppl. x. (1907).]
7. Local variations of the Koine.-In order to answer the question whether Biblical Greek shows a definite local character, we must first of all inquire whether local variations or even dialects existed in the colloquial Koine. We certainly cannot look for such differences in the written texts of a cosmopolitan language, as it lies in the very nature of a written language to tend towards uniformity. Our investigation must therefore carefully take account of all phenomena that could be regarded as pointing to local variation. In view of the wide expansion of the Koine, it is natural to suppose that local varieties would exist, i.e. that the common language would not be spoken in exactly the same way in Egypt, Asia Minor (Syria), and in the ancient Attic, Ionic, and Doric areas, since the ancient dialects themselves or the languages of the barbarians who had just learned to speak Greek would lend a certain colouring, in pronunciation at least, to the Koine of the various regions. And, as a matter of fact, we are able, partly with the help of Modern Greek, to determine the existence of a number of such local variations. Thus the Greek-speaking Egyptians and Asiatics could not keep the e and i sounds* [Note: Vowels (a, e, i, etc.) as in German.] distinct (a phenomenon which, however, had nothing to do with itacism), and confounded tenues, mediae, and aspirates, probably substituting tenues, or unvoiced mediae, for the last two groups. The had a close and an open sound, the latter probably in the East, as may be inferred from the pronunciation of as e in the modern dialect of Pontus; was pronounced as i, and u (iu), though it is impossible to define the local limits of the variations. Similarly, the intrusion of an inter-vocalic (as in [= ] found in a papyrus of the 2nd cent. b.c.) was merely local, as is shown by Modern Greek; while the sound-change of into as in = , and the substitution of a single for a duplicated consonant, cannot have been universal in the Koine, since the is still retained in the East (Cappadocia and Pontus), and the double letter in the south-east (Cyprus, Rhodes, etc.), of the Modern Greek area. Finally, the retention and omission of final must each have had their own local distribution. As regards inflexions, we may draw attention to the Egyptian declension in -, – as compared with the Ionic -, – (imparisyllabic nouns of this class are not found in the NT). Further, forms like on the one hand, and on the other, as also and the like, indicate that, as in Modern Greek, different regions of the Koine levelled the personal endings in different ways. As yet, however, the clearest evidence that by the end of the ancient period the Koine had already split up into actual dialects, in which lay the germs of the dialects of to-day, is found in the imprecation-tablets of Cyprus (3rd. cent. a.d.), the language of which shows traces of both the ancient and the modern dialect of that island. [Note: Thumb, Neue Jahrbcher fr das Klass, Altertum, xvii. [1906] 257.]
But while recent investigation has thus succeeded in proving the existence of local varieties of the Koine, it must refuse to recognize the so-called varieties whose existence has been maintained from ancient times, viz. the Alexandrian and Macedonian dialects. What was regarded, alike in ancient and in modern times, as characteristic of these dialects is found to have belonged to no special region, but to the common Hellenistic language. Not even the stock example (= ) can be claimed for the Alexandrian dialect-let alone Alexandrian Jewish-Greek-as that phonetic form has been traced, e.g., in the Koine of Thera.
8. Biblical Greek as a local variety of the Koine.-We now come to the question how Biblical Greek is related to these local idioms. It is not possible to describe the Greek Bible as the monument of a distinct dialect of the Koine, and still less as the monument of an Alexandrian or Palestinian Jewish-Greek, or of a special Christian Greek. Of the existence of an Alexandrian Jewish-Greek there is no real evidence at all, as was first explicitly proved by Deissmann (see Lit.). Psichari (see Lit.), who has recently investigated the problem, could find no support for the theory that in particular the translators of the OT spoke a Jewish Greek, and so occasionally introduced Hebraisms into their version. The language of the Septuagint is in reality a translation-Greek, and cannot therefore be adduced as proving the existence of a Jewish variety of the colloquial Koine; nor is all our wider knowledge of the Greek spoken in Palestine, whether derived from direct or indirect sources, sufficient to warrant us in speaking of it as a distinct type; at most it may be described as the Syrian Koine. Biblical Greek, moreover, is by no means identical with what we have been able to establish regarding the Greek of the Palestinian Jews, for the particular change of meaning which certain Greek words underwent in Rabbinical usage does not appear in those words as used in Biblical Greek; thus, e.g., in the Rabbinical literature means service rendered; in the Bible (as in Greek generally), religious service.
It is a controversy some centuries old whether the language of the Bible bears a Hebrew colouring or not; the so-called Purists sought to demonstrate the classical, the Hebraists the hebraizing, character of Biblical Greek. The theory of the specific quality of NT Gr. acquired a certain theological importance in virtue of the pointed expression which it received at the hands of R. Rothe, viz. that the NT speaks in the language of the Holy Ghost, who framed for Himself a quite distinct religious idiom by transforming the linguistic elements which lay ready for Him, as also the already existent concepts, into a medium appropriate to Him.* [Note: Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus, p. 181.] The research of the last fifteen years has shown more and more conclusively that the question in debate was wrongly put, since neither classical Greek nor a supposed Jewish Greek is to be regarded as the foundation of Biblical Greek. To Deissmann (see Lit.) is due the merit of having brought clear principles to bear upon the subject, inasmuch as he showed that Biblical Greek cannot be treated as an isolated phenomenon, and assigned it a place in the general process of a great natural development of language. First of all, as regards the so-called Hebraisms, or, more accurately, Semitisms, the examples usually adduced are either simply fallacious or else indecisive. Leaving out of account the pedantic and barbarous literality in translations of certain parts of the OT (as e.g. the translation of Aquila, who renders , the sign of the Heb. accusative, by ), we must admit that the syntax of the Septuagint has not been modified by the original in any undue degree; thus even the construction with the infinitive (Heb. with inf.) cannot be regarded as non-Greek. [Note: Helbing, Grammatik der LXX, p. 4.] Detailed investigation shows that the translators were quite able to keep themselves free from bondage to their original, and that they strove with success to represent the Hebrew form of expression by an excellent Greek diction (cf. Johannessohn, in Lit.). In the NT, again, evidences of a Hebrew ground-colour have proved even less cogent, as is now increasingly recognized. The statement of B. Weiss that the Fourth Gospel has a hebraisierender Grundton has been recently challenged by Wellhausen (Das Evangelium Johannis, Berlin, 1908). In point of fact, the more thoroughly we work through the papyri, the smaller grows the number of alleged Hebraisms; we need cite only the constructions and . That modes of expression which really occur in Greek, though but rarely, or only in special circumstances, should be found more frequently in Biblical Greek when they happen to coincide with Hebrew usage (as e.g. ) need occasion no surprise; it is natural enough in translations or reproductions from foreign languages. [Note: also Moulton, Einleitung, pp. 26, 31.] Even the vocative , the use of which in Biblical Greek is explained by Wackernagel [Note: ber einige antike Anredeformen, Gttingen, 1912.] as an imitation of Hebrew, may be brought under this general law, since occurs as a vocative-though with a different shade of meaning-also in Greek; while the predicative , and such expressions as , the unjust judge, have likewise certain points of contact with Greek, and therefore cannot rightly be described as non-Greek Hebraisms or barbarisms.
In the NT, the phenomenon just explained, viz. that relatively rarer forms of expression occur more frequently in Biblical Greek, is one that may be expected with special frequency in those parts that rest on an Aramaic original. But the question whether certain parts of the NT go back to an Aramaic original is one in which the Hebraisms necessarily play a leading part, and which cannot be effectively solved until the full complement of the Hebraisms has been established beyond dispute. Thus, e.g., the monotonous sequence of narrative by means of clauses in no sense proves the presence of the Semitic genius of language-often as that assertion has been made. Exact statistical investigations, such as alone could avail us here, are still lacking. Probably the best foundation for such investigations would be the arrangement of words, and especially the position of the verb; and, as a matter of fact, the frequent occurrence of the verb at the beginning of clauses in the Gospel narrative seems to be at variance with ordinary Greek usage, and to have been influenced by the Hebrew diction, though at the same time it is not unknown in Greek.* [Note: E. Kieckers, Die Stellung des Verbs im Griechischen, Strassburg, 1911, p. 5.]
The influence of Hebrew upon the phraseology of Biblical Greek is clearly manifest only in the Septuagint , though there also every particular instance demands the most careful scrutiny. [Note: , e.g., Thackeray, A Grammar of the OT in Greek, i. [Cambridge, 1909], p. 31 ff.] In the NT the formation of new words to represent special Christian ideas is quite an unimportant element. Deissmann estimates the number of biblical words in the NT as no more than one per cent. Christianity was able to formulate its distinctive conceptions (e.g. , ) in the spirit and with the linguistic resources of the Koine; as Deissmann rightly observes, it had not so much a word-forming as a word-transforming power. But such alteration in the meaning of existent words takes place in all cases where a profound change occurs in the civilization-including, of course, also the concepts and ideas-of a people. The discussion of such phenomena forms a chapter of ordinary semasiology, for Biblical Greek does not differ in this respect from Gr. in general. In many cases the NT merely carries forward in Christian concepts the religions signification which had already been fully developed in the extra-Christian Koine, as e.g. in , saviour; [Note: especially Wendland, ZNTW v. [1904] 335 ff.] for other examples see the works of Deissmann.
How the study at the Koine texts furthers our knowledge in this field is shown also by G. Thieme, Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Mander und das NT, Gttingen, 1906, and J. Rouffiac, Recherches sur les caractres du grec dans le NT daprs les inscriptions de Prine, Paris, 1911.
Biblical Greek, then, corresponds to the Hellenistic Greek of the age in phonetics, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary. As, however, the Septuagint took form in Egypt and the NT on Asiatic soil, it is of course conceivable that the pronunciation and idiom of the Egyptian and Asiatic Greeks would now and again assert themselves, just as, e.g., the literary German of the Austrians can be distinguished from that of the Northern Germans. But, for one thing, the written text is too imperfect a representation of the actual pronunciation, and, for another, our knowledge of the finer provincial differences in the vocabulary and syntax of the Koine is too meagre, to enable us to trace abnormalities in the biblical Koine with certainty. In one respect, however, we may speak of a dialectical modification in biblical texts: the manuscript tradition of sounds and forms is not homogeneous. Each particular manuscript betrays the influence of the language, the period, and the country of the writer; while in certain phonetic features, such as the confusion of mediae, tenues, and aspirates, or the confusion of i (, ) and , , and of and , some of the older Manuscripts of the NT (e.g. A and ) indicate their Egyptian or Asiatic origin. It should also be noted that in the Septuagint we find, e.g., the of B appearing as in A; that accusatives like and are met with only in A and , and that differences appear even in the selection of words, as where and in A correspond to and in B. To what extent the original text itself was affected by the local idiom of the writers (or translators) can be determined only by means of a detailed investigation of the Manuscripts . Thus the accusative form may quite possibly be due to the translators of the OT, or to some of them, but that they actually used it (as Psichari* [Note: Essai sur le Grec de la Septante, in Revue des tudes juives, 1908, p. 164 f.] believes) is meanwhile difficult to prove. In view of the fact that the linguistic form of the several Manuscripts still awaits precise investigation, such apparent trifles as, e.g., the or the dropping of between vowels, and such variants as , , , must not be overlooked.
Possibly, however, we may be more successful with the question regarding the provincial idiom of the biblical writers, if we examine the syntactical features, as the manuscript tradition would be less likely to infringe upon the original text in that respect. A noteworthy fact, observed by Radermacher, [Note: Grammatik, Tbingen, 1911, p. 62.] is that the use of the article as a relative-a usage authenticated in Attic inscriptions of the 4th cent. a.d. and here and there in Koine texts-seems to be foreign to the NT. Further, the final infinitive, which is a favourite construction in the Ionic of Homer, but is seldom used in Attic, appears with great frequency in the NT, though the substitution of for the infinitive in other constructions had developed in a marked degree. Now it is a remarkable fact that the final infinitive is found to depend upon verbs of the same class alike in the NT, in the early Byzantine author Malalas of Syria, and in the Pontic dialect of to-day (the only dialect that still retains the infinitive). This suggests the inference that there was an eastern Koine dialect marked inter alia by its retention of the infinitive, and that the language of the NT was more closely akin to that dialect; than to the other branches of the Koine, which discarded the Infinitive altogether, and in this respect paved the way for Modern Greek usage. Another and perhaps even more characteristic phenomenon is that the Fourth Gospel makes very frequent use of the adjectival pronoun , and that similarly the Acta Johannis and Acta Philippi prefer the adjectival , while the rest of the NT writings, like Modern Greek, usually employ the genitives and . As the adjectival possessives are now retained only by the dialects of Pontus and Cappadocia, we may regard the authors of the Fourth Gospel and the other two works just named-in view of their preference for and -as having belonged to Asia Minor.
It is therefore possible, with the aid of grammatical characteristics, to assign a particular book of die Bible to a definite portion of the Koine area. We thus at the same time trench upon, and, in principle at least, give an affirmative answer to, the question whether the various constituent parts of the Greek Bible may-not only us regards their style but also as regards their grammar-be distinguished from one another in such a way as to warrant us in associating their writers with different districts. Investigation of the local varieties of the Koine (see above) has not yet yielded such results as would enable us to deal with the problem on a comprehensive scale. So far as individuality of diction has as yet been noted in the various biblical writers, it would seem to involve nothing more than differences in culture and in stylistic tendencies: compare, e.g., the Gospels, the Pauline Epistles, and the Epistle to the Hebrews. J. H. Moulton has called attention to such differences,* [Note: Especially in his New Testament Greek in the Light of Modern Discovery (Cambridge Biblical Essays, London, 1909, p. 461 ff.).] while H. St. J. Thackeray [Note: cit. i. 6 ff.] has successfully utilized the occurrence or non-occurrence of certain words as a means of breaking up the Greek version of the OT into groups which must have come from distinct hands. The next task of the investigator, however, will be to examine the syntax and vocabulary of the several parts of the Greek OT and NT with reference to the question whether they cannot be brought into relation also with local and chronological modifications of the Koine. A beginning has been made in the works of Thieme and Rouffiac already named.
9. The more important grammatical peculiarities of Biblical Greek.-The definition of Biblical Greek as a monument of the Koine is in no way affected by the discussions of the foregoing paragraph, and a grammatical study of the former gives us a good idea of the Koine in general as contrasted with Attic Greek. [Note: In what follows, a star (*) placed before the word indicates that the form is found in both the LXX and the NT; forms not so distinguished are in the NT.]
(A) Phonetics.-(1) Itacism had become a fairly common feature of Greek pronunciation in Asia Minor and Egypt by the beginning of the 2nd century; was pronounced as i, as e (), and as (a sound resembling , but incapable of being more precisely determined). [Note: The occasional use of for in papyri (cf. for in LXX, 1Ki 14:21) shows that it was akin to u; but at an early period it had also the value of in Asia and Egypt.] The was still an e sound, but in the countries named was sometimes confused with i (, ), as the latter had there a very open pronunciation. The itacistic development is reflected in such biblical modes of spelling as (), , = , (also ), (also ). Probably and were still pronounced as true diphthongs, i.e. as au, eu. Of the consonants, , , , and still retained their original values, viz. p + h, k + h, b and g; the native Egyptians and Asiatics made no distinction between these and the corresponding unvoiced explosives p and k (see above), though the Modern Greek aspirate pronunciation of and had already found a footing: cf. for in Septuagint ; and for and , the English pronunciation of voiced and voiceless th would seem to have prevailed in NT times. was like the English z (voiced s); cf. the manuscript form *. (2) The distinction between long and short vowels was no longer maintained in but in the Septuagint and are seldom confused. (3) Peculiarities in the usage of vowels: * (for ); * (= ), I seize; * = ; * = ; * = . (4) Consonantal peculiarities: * and *; , * ; (, Septuagint ); * (the spiritus asper is transferred from , ). The relation of * to is obscure. Examples of ( also used) are more frequent in the Septuagint than in the NT, and this corresponds to the usage of the Koine in their respective periods.
(B) Inflexion.-(1) For the vocative see above, 8. Observe (for ) , and the like. is declined , , after the example of , . (2) For , *, , etc., see above. (3) (for ); for is perhaps a Dorism. (4) Verbs in – went gradually out or use, as is attested by the manuscript readings (Septuagint ), , *, *, . In the inflexion of we find an imp. mid. . The earliest unmistakable use of (= ), from which arose the Mod. Gr. , he is, instead of is found in the NT; the imperative is (for ). (5) (Mod. Gr. ), the use of which is better attested in the NT than in the Septuagint , is an innovation formed from , and on the analogy of , which could be inflected like a perfect (Septuagint and ). (6) Contracted verbs: * and *, but *; the Hellenistic is but meagrely attested in Biblical Greek. (7) The spelling (Septuagint ) is of special interest, as presents with occur also in the Cyprian dialect of to-day, i.e. in Eastern Greek. (8) Personal endings: (a) the ending – extends far beyond its original usage, but occurs more frequently in the Septuagint (, , , ) than in the NT (, ): in Mod. Gr. it is confined to contracted verbs; (b) the terminations of the first and second aorists begin to coalesce, e.g. *, *; as found in the imperfect (e.g. *), we cannot be so sure that they belong to the original text; (c) in 3rd plur. perf. we sometimes find – for -, as in *, *.
(C) Syntax.-(1) Indications of the decreasing use of the dative are the occasional confusion between with acc., and with dat., the preference for the gen. and the acc., after prepositions taking three cases, and the growing use of the acc. after verbs like *, , . After certain verbs, moreover, the acc. tends to supersede the gen., as e.g. , . (2) A prepositional construction sometimes takes the place of simple noun with case, as e.g. , . (3) The aorist, in comparison with the imp. indic., is more frequently used than in the classical period; the use of the aorist in a perfective sense is made distinct by prepositions, thus (Luk 19:13), trade with, but (Luk 19:15), gain by trading. This force of the preposition explains also why a preposition is more frequently attached to the aorist than to the present stem; but presents with aoristic force could be formed in a similar way: cf. (Mat 6:2; Mat 6:5; Mat 6:16), they have received their reward; is used in a like sense in receipts found among the papyri. A characteristic feature of the Septuagint and NT is that they always employ the aorist imperative in invocations of God-a usage to which we find an analogy in Homer. (4) The extent to which the perfect was used in Biblical Greek with the force of the aorist is disputed; the usage of Hellenistic Greek generally rather favours the aoristic function (as e.g. of *, *) in Biblical Greek as well. (5) The optative was obsolescent, alike in principal and in subordinate clauses; its disuse is more marked in the NT than in the Septuagint . (6) The infinitive shows no sign of decay in the Septuagint ; but in the NT it is widely (as in Mod. Gr. always) superseded by , hence e.g. , ; to look for a purposive force in every in Biblical Greek is a mistake. The infinitive with the article, however, is common also in the NT, and it may be remarked that a number of old infinitive forms survive in Mod. Gr. as nouns, e.g. = , the kiss. (7) The present participle active shows a tendency to be come rigid (the Mod. Gr. is indeclinable), as e.g. in Joh 15:5 : () . A remarkable feature is the use of the participle without copula as a predicate.* [Note: Moulton, Einleitung, p. 352 ff.] As this usage is not only found in papyri, but is still very common in Malalas, it was probably a peculiarity of the Eastern Koine. (8) The wealth of particles characteristic of the classical language has been largely lost. The Gospels, like the popular tales of Modern Greek, generally exhibit a simple co-ordination of clauses, either without connectives or connected by , , , , . As already said, it is quite wrong to regard this feature-and in particular the frequent use of -as a Hebraism, the paratactic sequence of clauses being in reality a characteristic of simple popular narrative. [Note: Examples from the papyri are given by Witkowski, Glotta, vi. [1914] 22 f.] (9) In Biblical Greek the verb would seem to head the sentence more frequently than in Greek generally. Its initial position may well be due in part to Semitic influence (see above), but we must on this point await the results of a more searching and detailed investigation.
While the Septuagint and the NT belong to the same linguistic milieu, yet, as has been more than once noted in the foregoing grammatical sketch, they exhibit features indicative of their respective stages of development. In general, we may regard the contemporary papyri as providing the nearest parallels to each, though the Septuagint is occasionally more archaic than the papyri of its age; thus, while we find in it the forms , , , we do not find as yet , . No comparison has yet been made between the Septuagint and the NT as to the relative frequency of the linguistic changes in each-an undertaking for which the manuscript tradition would have to provide the basis; such a comparison would be the most reliable means of measuring the interval between the two groups of texts.
10. Post-Biblical Greek.-In certain productions of early Christian literature outside the NT canon (the NT Apocrypha, the Apostolic Fathers) the neologisms of the Koine bulk more largely than in the biblical writings, so that these non-canonical works must be regarded as belonging to a later linguistic stratum; with regard to particular books, however, it is more difficult than in the case of the Septuagint and NT to determine what is to be set down to the manuscript tradition, i.e. to decide whether forms like (= ) in the Acts of Pilate, or (= ) in the Acts of Thomas, were not originally due to later copyists. Apart from this, the linguistic differences found in the several writings of this group themselves, and the linguistic differences between this group and the NT canon, are marked only by larger or smaller concessions to the literary language of the educated. It is no doubt true that, even in the NT, Luke is distinguished from the other Gospels by a certain inclination to Atticism, and that other early Christian productions likewise reflect the literary tendencies of the age. Nevertheless, there was at the outset a sharply marked contrast between Biblical Greek and the literary language of the period; the Atticism (see above) then coming into vogue aimed at the revival of the classical (Attic) diction, and the cultured heathen looked down scornfully upon the barbarous sailor-speech of primitive Christianity ( and ). [Note: See E. Norden, Anlike Kunstprosa, Leipzig, 1898, ii. 516 ff.] But just as in the succeeding centuries the youthful and revolutionary spirit of Christianity allied itself more and more with Greek philosophy and culture, and came at length to be quite bob Ionized, so too the language of Christianity soon lost that charm of originality and nave freshness which is characteristic of Biblical Greek. It is, in fact, only in the Lives of the Saints and similar productions that we still hear the speech of the simple people to whom the earliest preachers of the gospel appealed.* [Note: Vogeser, Zur Sprache der griechischen Heiligenlegenden, Munich, 1907.] The great teachers of the Church turned aside from the unschooled language of the Gospels, and adopted the style of cultured heathenism; in other words, they followed the literary fashion of Atticism. Even the early apologist Tatian aspired to be an Atticist, though his success in that direction was but meagre; [Note: Heiler, de Tatiani apologetae dicendi genere, Marburg, 1909.] while Chrysostom actually gave an Atticistic form to his quotations from Scripture. [Note: It may be observed in this connexion that F. Blass, who in his edd. of the Gospels of Matthew and John uses these quotations as a means of emending the MS tradition of the NT, is here working on entirely wrong lines.] The development in the language of Greek Christianity from the NT to the close of antiquity is a faithful reflexion of the process through which the Christian religion itself passed. In the course of a few centuries the faith of humble fisher-folk became the dominant religion of the Graeco-Roman world, and, passing from its native lowliness to the highest places, it paid its tribute to the culture of its new sphere.
Literature.-Books and articles already fully cited in the course of this article are not further mentioned here.
I. Bibliographical information.-Earlier lit. [Note: literally, literature.] in G. Meyer, Griechische Grammatik3, Leipzig, 1896; more recent in A. Thumb, Die Forschungen ber die hellenistische Sprache in den Jahren 1896-1901, in Archiv fr Papyrusforschung, ii. [1902] 396ff., in den Jahren 1902-1904, ib. iii. [1903] 443ff. (also Indogerm. Forsch. Anzeiger, i. [1892] 48, vi. [1896] 224ff.); Witkowski, Bericht ber die Literatur zur Koine aus den Jahren 1898-1902, in C. Bursians Jahresbericht ber die Fortschritte der klass. Altertumswissenschaft, cxx. [1904] 153ff., aus den Jahren 1903-1906, ib. clix. [1912] 1ff.; J. H. Moulton, Hellenistic Greek, in The Years Work in Classical Studies, ed. for the Classical Association, latest article in 1913, p. 187ff.; A. Deissmann, Die Sprache der griechischen Bibel, in Theologische Rundschau, i. [1898] 463ff., ix. [1906] 210ff., xv. [1912] 339ff.; further, the section Das Neue Testament (in recent years by R. Knopf) in the 3rd division of the Theolog. Jahresbericht, ed. G. Krger and M. Schian, Leipzig, 1909ff., deals very fully with the linguistic side.
II. Grammar of the Koine.-K. Dieterich, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache, Leipzig, 1898; G. Meyer (as above), Thumb-Brugmann, Griechische Grammatik4, Munich, 1913; A. N. Jannaris, An Historical Greek Grammar, London, 1897 (not in the modern method); also the various works mentioned above and below.
III. Problems and History.-C. D. Buck, The General Linguistic Conditions in Ancient Italy and Greece, in Classical Journal, i. [1906] 99ff.; J. P. Mahaffy, The Silver Age of the Greek World, Chicago, 1906 (deals with the culture and expansion of Hellenism); A. Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus, Strassburg, 1901, Prinzipienfragen der Koine-Forschung, in Neue Jahrbcher fr das klassische Altertum, xvii. [1906] 246ff.; P. Kretschmer, Die Entstehung der Koine, Vienna, 1900; D. C. Hesseling, De Koine en de oude dialekten van Griekenland, Amsterdam, 1906 (in the publications of the Koninklijke Academie); cf. also the works of Deissmann and Moulton in section IV. below; a sketch of the Koine in connexion with the general history of the Greek language is given in J. Wackernagel, Die griechische Sprache (= Kultur der Gegenwart, pt. i. vol. viii. [3Leipzig, 1912]), and A. Meillet, Aperu dune histoire de la langue grecque, Paris, 1913, p. 259ff.
IV. Biblical Greek.-(1) General.-G. A. Deissmann, Bibelstudien, Marburg, 1895, Neue Bibelstudien, do. 1897 (Eng. translation , Bible Studies2, Edinburgh, 1903), Die sprachliche Erforschung der griechischen Bibel, Giessen, 1898, New Light on the NT, Eng. translation , Edinburgh, 1907, The Philology of the Greek Bible, Eng. translation , London, 1908, Licht vom Osten2, 3, Tbingen, 1909 (Eng. translation , Light from the Ancient East2, London, 1911), Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der Sprachforschung, Tbingen, 1910; A. Thumb, Die sprachgeschichtliche Stellung des biblischen Griechisch, in Theologische Rundschau, v. [1902] 85ff.; J. H. Moulton, A Grammar of NT Greek3, Edinburgh, 1908 (Germ. translation [in reality a new ed.], Einleitung in die Sprache des NT, Heidelberg, 1911), The Science of Language and the Study of the NT, Manchester, 1906; S. Dickey, The Greek of the NT, in Princeton Theological Review, i. [1903] 631ff.; H. Lietzmann, Die klassische Philologie und das NT, in Neue Jahrbcher fr das klassische Altertum, xxi. [1908] 1ff.; S. Angus, Modern Methods in NT Philology, in Harvard Theological Review, ii. [1909] 446ff., also Hellenistic and Hellenism in Our Universities, Hartford, Conn., 1909, also The Koin: the language of the NT, in Princeton Theological Review, viii. [1910] 43ff.
(2) Grammars.-R. Helbing, Grammatik der Septuagint , Gttingen, 1907; H. St. J. Thackeray, A Grammar of the OT in Greek, i., Cambridge, 1909; Winer-Schmiedel, Grammatik des neutest. Sprachidioms, Gttingen, 1894ff. (not yet completed); F. Blass, Grammatik des neutest. Griechisch (4th ed. by A. Debrunner, Gttingen, 1913; Eng. translation Thackeray2, London, 1905); L. Radermacher, Neutest. Grammatik (in Handbuch zum NT, ed. Lietzmann, i. 1), Tbingen, 1911; E. A. Abbott, Johannine Grammar, London, 1906 (Conybeare-Stock, Selections from the Septuagint , Boston, 1905, and J. Viteau, tude sur le grec du NT compar avec celui des Septante, Paris, 1897, are out of date).
(3) Important monographs.-H. B. Swete, An Introduction to the OT in Greek, Cambridge, 1900, p. 289ff.; R. Meister, Prolegomena zu einer Grammatik der Septuagint , in Wiener Studien xxix. [1907] 228ff., also Beitrge zur Lautlehre der Septuagint , Vienna, 1909; J. Psichari, Essai sur le Grec de la Septante, in Revue des tudes juives, 1908, p. 161ff.; M. Johannessohn, Der Gebrauch der Kasus und Prpositionen in der Septuagint , Berlin, 1910; E. de W. Burton, Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in NT Greek3, Chicago, 1898; Th. Vogel, Zur Charakteristik des Lukas nach Sprache und Stil, Leipzig, 1897: M. Krenkel, Josephus und Lukas, do. 1894; A. Schlatter, Die Sprache und Heimat des 4. Evangelisten (= Beitrge zur Frderung christlicher Theologie, vi. 4 [1902]), and T. C. Laughlin, The Solecisms of the Apocalypse, Princeton, 1902 (the last two of little use); W. Heitmller, Im Namen Jesu, Gttingen, 1903.
(4) Lexicography.-As supplementing the standard Greek lexicons the following are of importance: E. A. Sophocles, A Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods, New York, 1887, and H. van Herwerden, Lexicon graecum suppletorium et dialecticum2, Leiden, 1910; for the Septuagint , Hatch-Redpath, Concordance to the Septuagint , 6 vols., Oxford, 1892-97; for the NT, Thayer Grimms Gr.-Eng. Lexicon of the NT, tr. Thayer , A Greet-English Lexicon of the NT2, 1890; F. Zorell, Novi Testamenti lexicon graecum, Paris, 1911; E. A. Abbott (as in IV. (2) above); Naegeli (as cited in article ); the Lexical Notes from the Papyri (of great importance for the vocabulary of the NT), by J. H. Moulton and G. Milligan, in recent years of The Expositor, are not yet completed, and are to be collected and published separately.
V. Post-Biblical Greek.-H. Reinhold, De graecitate patrum apostolicorum librorumque apocryphorum (= Dissert. philolog. Halenses, xiv. [Halle, 1898]) 1ff,; F. Rostalski, Sprachliches zu den apokryphen Apostelgeschichten, 2 pts., Programm, Myslowitz, 1910 and 1911; E. J. Goodspeed, Index patristicus, Leipzig, 1907; T. M. Wehofer, Untersuchungen zur altchristlichen Epistolographie, Vienna, 1901; J. Compernass, De sermone grco volgari Pisidiae Phrygique meridionalis, Bonn, 1895; X. Hrth, De Gregorii Nazianzeni orationibus funebribus (= Dissert. philolog. Argent. selectae, xii. 1 [Strassburg, 1907]), p. 71ff.
A. Thumb.