Photius Of Constantinople (3)
Photius of Constantinople
Chief author of the great schism between the East and West. Born Constantinople, c.815; died 897. Having previously held high offices in the Byzantine Court he was intruded into the patriarchate of Constantinople in place of the rightful patriarch, Ignatius, who had been deposed and banished for seeking to correct the vices of Bardas, regent for the young emperor, Michael the Drunkard. Pope Nicholas I declared his election illegal, but Photius denied his authority and retaliated by excommunicating the Pope and the Latins, proclaiming as his chief reason for so doing that they had added filioque to the Creed. Upon the death of Michael III, Photius was deposed and banished, and Ignatius was restored to the Patriarchate. Photius, however, succeeded in ingratiating himself with the new Emperor Basil I and organized a strong party, which, upon the death of Ignatius, demanded his appointment to the see. Pope John VIII agreed, absolved him from all censure, and acknowledged him as patriarch. Photius immediately renewed the old quarrel and at a synod held in Saint Sophia’s (879) which he had persuaded the pope to call, repeated all his accusations against the Latins, dwelling especially on the filioque-grievance. He was again excommunicated, and upon the accession of Pope Leo VI to the throne was deposed and sent into exile, where he died. Of Photius’ prolific literary production may be mentioned the Myriobiblion or Bibliotheca, a collection of notes on, and extracts from 280 volumes of classical authors, the originals of which are now in large part lost; and Amphilochia, a collection of questions and answers on biblical, philosophical, and theological difficulties.
Fuente: New Catholic Dictionary
Photius of Constantinople
Photius of Constantinople, chief author of the great schism between East and West, was b. at Constantinople c. 815 (Hergenröther says “not much earlier than 827”, “Photius”, I, 316; others, about 810); d. probably 6 Feb., 897. His father was a spatharios (lifeguard) named Sergius. Symeon Magister (“De Mich. et Theod.”, Bonn ed., 1838, xxix, 668) says that his mother was an escaped nun and that he was illegitimate. He further relates that a holy bishop, Michael of Synnada, before his birth foretold that he would become patriarch, but would work so much evil that it would be better that he should not be born. His father then wanted to kill him and his mother, but the bishop said: “You cannot hinder what God has ordained. Take care for yourself.” His mother also dreamed that she would give birth to a demon. When he was born the abbot of the Maximine monastery baptized him and gave him the name Photius (Enlightened), saying: “Perhaps the anger of God will be turned from him” (Symeon Magister, ibid., cf. Hergenröther, “Photius”, I, 318-19). These stories need not be taken seriously. It is certain that the future patriarch belonged to one of the great families of Constantinople; the Patriarch Tarasius (784-806), in whose time the seventh general council (Second of Nicæa, 787) was held, was either elder brother or uncle of his father (Photius: Ep. ii, P. G., CII, 609). The family was conspicuously orthodox and had suffered some persecution in Iconoclast times (under Leo V, 813-20). Photius says that in his youth he had had a passing inclination for the monastic life (“Ep. ad Orient. et Oecon.”, P. G., CII, 1020), but the prospect of a career in the world soon eclipsed it.
He early laid the foundations of that erudition which eventually made him one of the most famous scholars of all the Middle Ages. His natural aptitude must have been extraordinary; his industry was colossal. Photius does not appear to have had any teachers worthy of being remembered; at any rate he never alludes to his masters. Hergenröther, however, notes that there were many good scholars at Constantinople while Photius was a child and young man, and argues from his exact and systematic knowledge of all branches of learning that he could not have been entirely self-taught (op. cit., I, 322). His enemies appreciated his learning. Nicetas, the friend and biographer of his rival Ignatius, praises Photius’s skill in grammar, poetry, rhetoric, philosophy, medicine, law, “and all science” (“Vita S. Ignatii” in Mansi, XVI, 229). Pope Nicholas I, in the heat of the quarrel writes to the Emperor Michael III: “Consider very carefully how Photius can stand, in spite of his great virtues and universal knowledge” (Ep. xcviii “Ad Mich.”, P. G., CXIX, 1030). It is curious that so learned a man never knew Latin. While he was still a young man he made the first draft of his encyclopædic “Myrobiblion”. At an early age, also, he began to teach grammar, philosophy, and theology in his own house to a steadily increasing number of students.
His public career was to be that of a statesman, coupled with a military command. His brother Sergius married Irene, the emperor’s aunt. This connexion and his undoubted merit procured Photius speedy advancement. He became chief secretary of State (protosekretis) and captain of the Life Guard (protospatharios). He was unmarried. Probably about 838 he was sent on an embassy “to the Assyrians” (“Myrobiblion”, preface), i. e., apparently, to the Khalifa at Bagdad. In the year 857, then, when the crisis came in his life, Photius was already one of the most prominent members of the Court of Constantinople. That crisis is the story of the Great Schism (see GREEK CHURCH). The emperor was Michael III (842-67), son of the Theodora who had finally restored the holy images. When he succeeded his father Theophilus (829-842) he was only three years old; he grew to be the wretched boy known in Byzantine history as Michael the Drunkard (ho methystes). Theodora, at first regent, retired in 856, and her brother Bardas succeeded, with the title of Cæsar. Bardas lived in incest with his daughter-in-law Eudocia, wherefore the Patriarch Ignatius (846-57) refused him Holy Communion on the Epiphany of 857. Ignatius was deposed and banished (Nov. 23, 857), and the more pliant Photius was intruded into his place. He was hurried through Holy Orders in six days; on Christmas Day, 857, Gregory Asbestas of Syracuse, himself excommunicate for insubordination by Ignatius, ordained Photius patriarch. By this act Photius committed three offences against canon law: he was ordained bishop without having kept the interstices, by an excommunicate consecrator, and to an already occupied see. To receive ordination from an excommunicate person made him too excommunicate ipso facto.
After vain attempts to make Ignatius resign his see, the emperor tried to obtain from Pope Nicholas I (858-67) recognition of Photius by a letter grossly misrepresenting the facts and asking for legates to come and decide the question in a synod. Photius also wrote, very respectfully, to the same purpose (Hergenröther, “Photius”, I, 407-11). The pope sent two legates, Rodoald of Porto and Zachary of Anagni, with cautious letters. The legates were to hear both sides and report to him. A synod was held in St. Sophia’s (May, 861). The legates took heavy bribes and agreed to Ignatius’s deposition and Photius’s succession. They returned to Rome with further letters, and the emperor sent his Secretary of State, Leo, after them with more explanations (Hergenröther, op. cit., I, 439-460). In all these letters both the emperor and Photius emphatically acknowledge the Roman primacy and categorically invoke the pope’s jurisdiction to confirm what has happened. Meanwhile Ignatius, in exile at the island Terebinth, sent his friend the Archimandrite Theognostus to Rome with an urgent letter setting forth his case (Hergenröther, I, 460-461). Theognostus did not arrive till 862. Nicholas, then, having heard both sides, decided for Ignatius, and answered the letters of Michael and Photius by insisting that Ignatius must be restored, that the usurpation of his see must cease (ibid, I, 511-16, 516-19). He also wrote in the same sense to the other Eastern patriarchs (510-11). From that attitude Rome never wavered: it was the immediate cause of the schism. In 863 the pope held a synod at the Lateran in which the two legates were tried, degraded, and excommunicated. The synod repeats Nicholas’s decision, that Ignatius is lawful Patriarch of Constantinople; Photius is to be excommunicate unless he retires at once from his usurped place.
But Photius had the emperor and the Court on his side. Instead of obeying the pope, to whom he had appealed, he resolved to deny his authority altogether. Ignatius was kept chained in prison, the pope’s letters were not allowed to be published. The emperor sent an answer dictated by Photius saying that nothing Nicholas could do would help Ignatius, that all the Eastern Patriarchs were on Photius’s side, that the excommunication of the legates must be explained and that unless the pope altered his decision, Michael would come to Rome with an army to punish him. Photius then kept his place undisturbed for four years. In 867 he carried the war into the enemy’s camp by excommunicating the pope and his Latins. The reasons he gives for this, in an encyclical sent to the Eastern patriarchs, are: that Latins fast on Saturday do not begin Lent till Ash Wednesday (instead of three days earlier, as in the East) do not allow priests to be married do not allow priests to administer confirmation have added the filioque to the creed. Because of these errors the pope and all Latins are: “forerunners of apostasy, servants of Antichrist who deserve a thousand deaths, liars, fighters against God” (Hergenröther, I, 642-46). It is not easy to say what the Melchite patriarchs thought of the quarrel at this juncture. Afterwards, at the Eighth General Council, their legates declared that they had pronounced no sentence against Photius because that of the pope was obviously sufficient.
Then, suddenly, in the same year (Sept. 867), Photius fell. Michael III was murdered and Basil I (the Macedonian, 867-86) seized his place as emperor. Photius shared the fate of all Michael’s friends. He was ejected from the patriarch’s palace, and Ignatius restored. Nicholas I died (Nov. 13, 867). Adrian II (867-72), his successor, answered Ignatius’s appeal for legates to attend a synod that should examine the whole matter by sending Donatus, Bishop of Ostia, Stephen, Bishop of Nepi, and a deacon, Marinus. They arrived at Constantinople in Sept., 869, and in October the synod was opened which Catholics recognize as the Eighth General Council (Fourth of Constantinople). This synod tried Photius, confirmed his deposition, and, as he refused to renounce his claim, excommunicated him. The bishops of his party received light penances (Mansi, XVI, 308-409). Photius was banished to a monastery at Stenos on the Bosphorus. Here he spent seven years, writing letters to his friends, organizing his party, and waiting for another chance. Meanwhile Ignatius reigned as patriarch. Photius, as part of his policy, professed great admiration for the emperor and sent him a fictitious pedigree showing his descent form St. Gregory the Illuminator and a forged prophecy foretelling his greatness (Mansi, XVI, 284). Basil was so pleased with this that he recalled him in 876 and appointed him tutor to his son Constantine. Photius ingratiated himself with everyone and feigned reconciliation with Ignatius. It is doubtful how far Ignatius believed in him, but Photius at this time never tires of expatiating on his close friendship with the patriarch. He became so popular that when Ignatius died (23 Oct, 877) a strong party demanded that Photius should succeed him; the emperor was now on their side, and an embassy went to Rome to explain that everyone at Constantinople wanted Photius to be patriarch. The pope (John VIII, 872-82) agreed, absolved him from all censure, and acknowledged him as patriarch.
This concession has been much discussed. It has been represented, truly enough, that Photius had shown himself unfit for such a post; John VIII’s acknowledgment of him has been described as showing deplorable weakness. On the other hand, by Ignatius’s death the See of Constantinople was now really vacant; the clergy had an undoubted right to elect their own patriarch; to refuse to acknowledge Photius would have provoked a fresh breach with the East, would not have prevented his occupation of the see, and would have given his party (including the emperor) just reason for a quarrel. The event proved that almost anything would have been better than to allow his succession, if it could be prevented. But the pope could not foresee that , and no doubt hoped that Photius, having reached the height of his ambition, would drop the quarrel.
In 878, then, Photius at last obtained lawfully the place he had formerly usurped. Rome acknowledged him and restored him to her communion. There was no possible reason now for a fresh quarrel. But he had identified himself so completely with that strong anti-Roman party in the East which he mainly had formed, and, doubtless, he had formed so great a hatred of Rome, that now he carried on the old quarrel with as much bitterness as ever and more influence. Nevertheless he applied to Rome for legates to come to another synod. There was no reason for the synod, but he persuaded John VIII that it would clear up the last remains of the schism and rivet more firmly the union between East and West. His real motive was, no doubt, to undo the effect of the synod that had deposed him. The pope sent three legates, Cardinal Peter of St. Chrysogonus, Paul, Bishop of Ancona, and Eugene, Bishop of Ostia. The synod was opened in St. Sophia’s in November, 879. This is the “Psuedosynodus Photiana” which the Orthodox count as the Eighth General Council. Photius had it all his own way throughout. He revoked the acts of the former synod (869), repeated all his accusations against the Latins, dwelling especially on the filioque grievance, anathematized all who added anything to the Creed, and declared that Bulgaria should belong to the Byzantine Patriarchate. The fact that there was a great majority for all these measures shows how strong Photius’s party had become in the East. The legates, like their predecessors in 861, agreed to everything the majority desired (Mansi, XVII, 374 sq.). As soon as they had returned to Rome, Photius sent the Acts to the pope for his confirmation. Instead John, naturally, again excommunicated him. So the schism broke out again. This time it lasted seven years, till Basil I’s death in 886.
Basil was succeeded by his son Leo VI (886-912), who strongly disliked Photius. One of his first acts was to accuse him of treason, depose, and banish him (886). The story of this second deposition and banishment is obscure. The charge was that Photius had conspired to depose the emperor and put one of his own relations on the throne—an accusation which probably meant that the emperor wanted to get rid of him. As Stephen, Leo’s younger brother, was made patriarch (886-93) the real explanation may be merely that Leo disliked Photius and wanted a place for his brother. Stephen’s intrusion was as glaring an offence against canon law as had been that of Photius in 857; so Rome refused to recognize him. It was only under his successor Antony II (893-95) that a synod was held which restored reunion for a century and a half, till the time of Michael Cærularius (1043-58). But Photius had left a powerful anti-Roman party, eager to repudiate the pope’s primacy and ready for another schism. It was this party, to which Cærularius belonged, that triumphed at Constantinople under him, so that Photius is rightly considered the author of the schism which still lasts. After this second deposition Photius suddenly disappears from history. It is not even known in what monastery he spent his last years. Among his many letters there is none that can be dated certainly as belonging to this second exile. The date of his death, not quite certain, is generally given as 6 February, 897.
That Photius was one of the greatest men of the Middle Ages, one of the most remarkable characters in all church history, will not be disputed. His fatal quarrel with Rome, though the most famous, was only one result of his many-sided activity. During the stormy years he spent on the patriarch’s throne, while he was warring against the Latins, he was negotiating with the Moslem Khalifa for the protection of the Christians under Moslem rule and the care of the Holy Places, and carrying on controversies against various Eastern heretics, Armenians, Paulicians etc. His interest in letters never abated. Amid all his cares he found time to write works on dogma, Biblical criticism, canon law, homilies, an encyclopædia of all kinds of learning, and letters on all questions of the day. Had it not been for his disastrous schism, he might be counted the last, and one of the greatest, of the Greek Fathers. There is no shadow of suspicion against his private life. He bore his exiles and other troubles manfully and well. He never despaired of his cause and spent the years of adversity in building up his party, writing letters to encourage his old friends and make new ones.
And yet the other side of his character is no less evident. His insatiable ambition, his determination to obtain and keep the patriarchal see, led him to the extreme of dishonesty. His claim was worthless. That Ignatius was the rightful patriarch as long as he lived, and Photius an intruder, cannot be denied by any one who does not conceive the Church as merely the slave of a civil government. And to keep this place Photius descended to the lowest depth of deceit. At the very time he was protesting his obedience to the pope he was dictating to the emperor insolent letters that denied all papal jurisdiction. He misrepresented the story of Ignatius’s deposition with unblushing lies, and he at least connived at Ignatius’s ill-treatment in banishment. He proclaimed openly his entire subservience to the State in the whole question of his intrusion. He stops at nothing in his war against the Latins. He heaps up accusations against them that he must have known were lies. His effrontery on occasions is almost incredible. For instance, as one more grievance against Rome, he never tires of inveighing against the fact that Pope Marinus I (882-84), John VIII’s successor, was translated from another see, instead of being ordained from the Roman clergy. He describes this as an atrocious breach of canon law, quoting against it the first and second canons of Sardica; and at the same time he himself continually transferred bishops in his patriarchate. The Orthodox, who look upon him, rightly, as the great champion of their cause against Rome, have forgiven all his offences for the sake of this championship. They have canonized him, and on 6 Feb., when they keep his feast, their office overflows with his praise. He is the “far-shining radiant star of the church”, the “most inspired guide of the Orthodox”, “thrice blessed speaker for God”, “wise and divine glory of the hierarchy, who broke the horns of Roman pride” (“Menologion” for 6 Feb., ed. Maltzew, I, 916 sq.). The Catholic remembers this extraordinary man with mixed feelings. We do not deny his eminent qualities and yet we certainly do not remember him as a thrice blessed speaker for God. One may perhaps sum up Photius by saying that he was a great man with one blot on his character—his insatiable and unscrupulous ambition. But that blot so covers his life that it eclipses everything else and makes him deserve our final judgment as one of the worst enemies the Church of Christ ever had, and the cause of the greatest calamity that ever befell her.
WORKS
Of Photius’s prolific literary production part has been lost. A great merit of what remains is that he has preserved at least fragments of earlier Greek works of which otherwise we should know nothing. This applies especially to his “Myriobiblion”. The “Myriobiblion” or “Bibliotheca” is a collection of descriptions of books he had read, with notes and sometimes copious extracts. It contains 280 such notices of books (or rather 279; no. 89 is lost) on every possible subject—theology, philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, physics, medicine. He quotes pagans and Christians, Acts of Councils, Acts of Martyrs, and so on, in no sort of order. For the works thus partially saved (otherwise unknown) see Krumbacher, “Byz. Litter.”, 518-19. The “Lexicon” (Lexeon synagoge) was compiled, probably, to a great extent by his students under his direction (Krumbacher, ibid., 521), from older Greek dictionaries (Pausanias, Harpokration, Diogenianos, Ælius Dionysius). It was intended as a practical help to readers of the Greek classics, the Septuagint, and the New testament. Only one MS. of it exists, the defective “Codex Galeanus” (formerly in the possession of Thomas Gale, now at Cambridge), written about 1200. The “Amphilochia”, dedicated to one of his favourite disciples, Amphilochius of Cyzicus, are answers to questions of Biblical, philosophical, and theological difficulties, written during his first exile (867-77). There are 324 subjects discussed, each in a regular form–question, answer, difficulties, solutions—but arranged again in no order. Photius gives mostly the views of famous Greek Fathers, Epiphanius, Cyril of Alexandria, John Damascene, especially Theodoret. Biblical works.—Only fragments of these are extant, chiefly in Catenas. The longest are from Commentaries on St. Matthew and Romans. Canon Law.—The classical “Nomocanon” (q. v.), the official code of the Orthodox Church, is attributed to Photius. It is, however, older than his time (see JOHN SCHOLASTICUS). It was revised and received additions (from the synods of 861 and 879) in Photius’s time, probably by his orders. The “Collections and Accurate Expositions” (Eunagolai kai apodeixeis akribeis) (Hergenröther, op. cit., III, 165-70) are a series of questions and answers on points of canon law, really an indirect vindication of his own claims and position. A number of his letters bear on canonical questions. Homilies.—Hergenröther mentions twenty-two sermons of Photius (III, 232). Of these two were printed when Hergenröther wrote (in P. G., CII, 548, sq.), one on the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin, and one at the dedication of a new church during his second patriarchate. Later, S. Aristarches published eighty-three homilies of different kinds (Constantinople, 1900). Dogmatic and polemical works.—Many of these bear on his accusations against the Latins and so form the beginning of the long series of anti-Catholic controversy produced by Orthodox theologians. The most important is “Concerning the Theology about the Holy Ghost” (Peri tes tou hagiou pneumatos mystagonias, P. G., CII, 264-541), a defence of the Procession from God the Father alone, based chiefly on John, xv, 26. An epitome of the same work, made by a later author and contained in Euthymius Zigabenus’s “Panoplia”, XIII, became the favourite weapon of Orthodox controversialists for many centuries. The treatise “Against Those who say that Rome is the First See”, also a very popular Orthodox weapon, is only the last part or supplement of the “Collections”, often written out separately. The “Dissertation Concerning the Reappearance of the Manichæans” (Diegesis peri tes manichaion anablasteseos, P. G., CII, 9-264), in four books, is a history and refutation of the Paulicians. Much of the “Amphilochia” belongs to this heading. The little work “Against the Franks and other Latins” (Hergenröther, “Monumenta”, 62-71), attributed to Photius, is not authentic. It was written after Cærularius (Hergenröther, “Photius”, III, 172-224). Letters.—Migne, P. G., CII, publishes 193 letters arranged in three books; Balettas (London, 1864) has edited a more complete collection in five parts. They cover all the chief periods of Photius’s life, and are the most important source for his history. A. Ehrhard (in Krumbacher, “Byzantinische Litteratur”, 74-77) judges Photius as a distinguished preacher, but not as a theologian of the first importance. His theological work is chiefly the collection of excerpts from Greek Fathers and other sources. His erudition is vast, and probably unequalled in the Middle Ages, but he has little originality, even in his controversy against the Latins. Here, too, he only needed to collect angry things said by Byzantine theologians before his time. But his discovery of the filioque grievance seems to be original. Its success as a weapon is considerably greater than its real value deserves (Fortescue, “Orthodox Eastern Church”, 372-84).
Editions.—The works of Photius known at the time were collected by Migne, P. G., CI-CV. J. Balettas, Photiou epistolai (London, 1864), contains other letters (altogether 260) not in Migne. A. Papadopulos-Kerameus, “S. Patris Photii Epistolæ XLV” (St. Petersburg, 1896) gives forty-five more, of which, however, only the first twenty-one are authentic. S. Aristaches, Photiou logoi kai homiliai 83 (Constantinople, 1900, 2 vols.), gives other homilies not in Migne. Oikonomos has edited the “Amphilochia” (Athens, 1858) in a more complete text. J. Hergenröther, “Monumenta græca ad Photium eiusque historiam pertinentia” (Ratisbon, 1869), and Papadopulos-Kerameus, “Monumenta græca et latina ad historiam Photii patriarchæ pertinentia” (St. Petersburg, 2 parts, 1899 and 1901), add further documents.
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The Acts of the Synods of 869 and 879 are the most important sources (Mansi, XVI and XVII). THEOGNOSTUS (Archimandrite at Constantinople), Libellos periechon panta ta kata ton megan, a contemporary account of the beginning of the schism (in Mansi, XVI, 295, sq.); NIKETAS DAVID PAPHLAGON (d. 890); Bios Ignatiou (Mansi, XVI, 209 sq.). PAPADOPULOS-KERAMEUS declared this to be a fourteenth-century forgery in the Vizant. Vremennik (1899), 13-38, Pseudoniketas ho paphlagon; he was successfully refuted by VASILJEWSKI (ibid., 39-56); cf. Byzant. Zeitschrift, IX, (1900), 268 sq. GENESIOS, Basileiai (written between 945-959), a history of the emperors and Court from Leo V (813-20) to Basil I (867-86), published in Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byzantinæ (Bonn, 1834) and P. G., CIX,15 sqq.; LEO GRAMMATICUS, re-edition of SYMEON MAGISTER, Chronicle, in Corpus Script., 1842, and P. G. CVIII, 1037 sqq.
HERGENRÖTHER, Photius, Patriarch von Konstantinopel, sein Leben, seine Schriften u. das griechische Schisma (Ratisbon, 1867-69) (the most learned and exhaustive work on the subject). DEMETRAKOPULOS, Historia tou schismatos tes latinikes apo tes orthodoxou ekklesias (Leipzig, 1867), is an attempted rejoinder to HERGENRÖTHER, as is also KREMOS, Historia tou schismatos ton duo ekklesion (Athens, 1905-07, two volumes published out of four). LÄMMER, Papst Nikolaus u. die byzantinsche Staatskirche seiner Zeit (Berlin, 1857); PICHLER, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennung zwischen dem Orient. u. Occident (Munich, 1864-65); NORDEN, Das Papsttum und Byzanz (Berlin, 1903); KRUMBACHER, Geschichte der Byzantinischen Litteratur (Munich, 1897), 73-79, 515-524 (with copious bibliography); FORTESCUE, The Orthodox Eastern Church (London, 1907), 135-171; RUINAUT, Le schisme de Photius (Paris, 1910).
ADRIAN FORTESCUE Transcribed by Thomas J. Bress
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIICopyright © 1911 by Robert Appleton CompanyOnline Edition Copyright © 2003 by K. KnightNihil Obstat, June 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., CensorImprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York
Fuente: Catholic Encyclopedia
Photius Of Constantinople (1)
an Eastern ecclesiastic, tlourished in the 4th century. In the Acta Sanctorulm, Jnnii, 1:274, etc., is given an account of the martyrdom of St. Lucillianus, and several others who are said to have suffered at Byzantium, in the persecution under Aurelian. The account bears this title: ; Sancti Martyris Lucilliani Encomium, auctore beatissimo Photio, Sanctorum Apostolorum Sceuophylace ac Logotheta. Of the writer Photius, nothing further appears to be known than is contained in the title, namely, that he was keeper of the sacred vessels in the great church of the Apostles at Constantinople, which was second in importance only to that of St. Sophia; and that he must be placed after the time of Constantine, by whom the church was built. The Encomium is given in the Acta Sanctorum in the original Greek, with a Commentarius praevius, a Latin version, and notes by Conradus Januingus. See Fabricius, Bibl. Garcc. 10:271, 678; Smith, Dict. of Gr. and Rom. Biog. s.v.
Fuente: Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature
Photius Of Constantinople (2)
also an Eastern ecclesiastic, flourished in the 5th century as presbyter of the Church at Constantinople, and was one of the most decided and active supporters of the unfortunate heresiarch Nestorius (q.v.). When Antonius and Jacobus were sent, some:time before the Council of Ephesus, A.D. 431, to convert, by persecution, the Quartadecimans and Novatians of Asia Minor, they presented to some of their converts at Philadelphia, not the Nicene Creed, but one that contained a passage deemed heretical on the subject of the Incarnation, which excited against them Charisius, who was ceconomus of the Church at Philadelphia. In these proceedings Antonius and Jacobus were supported by Photius, who not only gave them letters at the commencement of their mission, attesting their orthodoxy, but procured the deposition of their opponent Charisius, who thereupon presented a complaint to the Council of Ephesus (Concilia, volume 3, col. 673. etc., ed. Labbe). Tillemont is disposed to ascribe to Photius the answer which was drawn up to the Epistola ad Solitarios of Cyril of Alexandria. A certain Photius, a supporter of Nestorius, was banished to Petra, about A.D. 436 (Lupus, Ad Ephesin Concil. varior. PP. Epistole, cap. 188), whom, notwithstanding the objections of Lulputs ( not. in loc.), we agree with Tillemont in idenltifyinlg with the presbyter of Constantinople (Tillemont, Memoires, 14:300, 332, 494, 607, 787).
Fuente: Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature
Photius Of Constantinople (3)
one of the most eminent men whose names occur in the long series of the Byzantine annals, flourished in the 9th century. In the preparation of this article we depend very largely upon Smith, Dict. of Gr. and Rom. Biog. s.v.
Life. The year and place of his birth, and the name of his father, appear to be unknown. His mother’s name was Irene: her brother married one of the sisters of Theodora, wife of the emperor Theophilus (Theoph. Continuat. lib. 4:22); so that Photius was connected by affinity with the imperial family. We have the testimony of Nicetas David, the Paphlagonian. that his lineage was illustrious. He had at least four brothers (Mountagu, Not. ad Epistol. Photii, page 138), one of whom, the eldest, enjoyed the dignity of patrician. Photius himself, in speaking of his father and mother, celebrates their crown of martyrdom, and the patient spirit by which they were adorned, during the reign of Theophilus or some other of the iconoclastic emperors. This is the more likely, as Photius elsewhere (Epistol. 2, Encycl. 42, and Epistol. ad Nicol.,Papam) claims as his relative Tarasius (probably great-uncle), partriarch of Coistantinople, who was one of the great champions of image worship, which shows the side taken by his family in the controversy. The ability of Photius would have adorned any lineage, and his capacious minid was cultivated, as the testimony even of his opponents and his extant works show, with great diligence. “He was accounted,” says Nicetas David, the biographer and panegyrist of his competitor Ignatius, “to be of all men most eminent for his secular acquirements, and his understanding of political affairs. For so superior were his attainments in grammar and poetry, in rhetoric and philosophy, yea, even in medicine, and in almost all the branches of knowledge beyond the limits of theology, that he not only appeared to excel all the men of his own day, but even to bear comparison with the ancients. For all things combined in his favor: natural adaptation, diligence, wealth, which enabled him to form a comprehensive library; and more than all these, the love of glory, which induced him to pass whole nights without sleep, that he might have time for reading. And when the time came (which ought never to have arrived) for him to intrude himself into the Church, he became a most diligent reader of theological works? (Vita Ignatii apud Conci. volume 8, ed. Labbe). It must not, however, be supposed that Photius had wholly neglected the study of theology before his entrance on an ecclesiastical life: so far was this from being the case, that he had read and carefully analyzed, as his Bibliotheca attests, the chief works of the Greek ecclesiastical writers of all ages, so that his attainments in sacred literature might have shamed many a professional divine.
Thus highly connected, and with a mind so richly endowed and highly cultivated, Photius obtained high advancement at the Byzantine court. He held the dignity of a proto-a-secretis, or chief-justice (Codin. De Officiis CP. page 36. ed. Bonn); and, if we trust the statement of Nicetas David (1. c.), of protospatharius, a name originally denoting the chief sword-bearer or captain of the guards, but which became, in later times, a merely nominal office (Codin. ibid. page 33). To these dignities may be added, on the authority of Anastasiis Bibliothecarius (Conail. Octavi Hist. apud Concil. ol. 8:col. 962, ed. Labbd), that of senator; but this is, perhaps, only another title for the office ofprotoa-secretis (Gretser. et Goar. Not. in Codin. page 242). Besides these official duties at the capital, he was also occasionally employed on missions abroad; and it was during an embassy “to the Assyrians” (a vague and unsuitable term, denoting apparently the court of the caliphs, or of some of the other powers of Upper Asia) that he read the works enumerated in his Bibliotheca, and wrote the critical notices of them which that work contains a striking instance of the energy and diligence with which he continued to cultivate literature in the midst of his secular duties and when away from home. Of the date of this embassy, while engaged in which he must have resided several years at the Assyrian court, as well of the other incidents of his life before his elevation to the patriarchate of Constantinople, we have no knowledge. He could hardly have been a young man at the time he became patriarch.
The patriarchal throne of Constantinople was occupied in the middle of the 9th century by Ignatius (s.v.), who had the misfortune to incur the enmity of some few bishops and’monks, and also of Bardas, who was allpowerful at the court of his nephew Michael, then a minor. Ignatius had excommunicated Bardas on a charge of incest, and Bardas, in retaliation, caused the patriarch’s deposition, and the election of Photius in his place. Though a layman, and, according to some statements, under excommunication for supporting Gregory, less than a week sufficed, according to Nicetas David (ibid.), for the rapid passage of Photius through all the needful subordinate gradations: the first day witnessed his conversion from a layman to a monk; the second day he was made reader; the third day subdeacon; the fourth, deacon; the fifth, presbyter; and the sixth (Christmas-day, A.D. 858) beheld his promotion to the patriarchate, the highest ecclesiastical dignity in the empire. Nicetas (ibid.) states that his office was irregullarlv committed to him by secular hands. Photius himnself, however, in his apologetic epistle to pope Nicholas I (apud Baron. Annal. ad ann. 859, 61, etc.), states that the patriarchate was pressed uponu his acceptanice by a numerous assembly of the metropolitans, and of the other, clergy of his patriarchate; nor is it likely that the Byzantine court would fail to secure a sufficient number of subservient bishops to give to the appointment every possible appearance of regularity. A consciousness that the whole transaction was violent and indefensible, whatever care might be taken to give it the appearance of regularity, made it desirable for the victorious party to obtain from the deposed patriarch a resignation of his office; but Ignatius was a man of too lofty a spirit to consent to his own degradation. Photius, however, retained’his high dignity; the secular power was on his side; the clergy of the patriarchate, in successive councils (A.D. 858, 859), confirmed his appointment, though we are told by Nicetas David that ‘the metropolitans exacted from him a written engage:ment that he would treat his deposed rival with filial reverence, and follow his advice; and even the legates of the Holy See were induced to side with him, a subserviency for which they were afterwards deposed by pope Nicholas I. The engagement to treat Ignatius with kindness was not kept; in such a struggle its observance could hardly be expected; but how far the severities inflicted on him are to be ascribed to Photius cannot now be determined.
The critical position of the latter would be likely to aggravate any disposition which he might feel to treat his rival harshly; for Nicholas, in a council at Rome (A.D. 862), embraced the side of Ignatius, and anathematized Photius and his adherents; various enemies rose up against him among the civil officers as well as the clergy of the empire; and the minds of many, including, if we may trust Nicetas (ibid.), the kindred and: friends of Photius him.self, were shocked by the treatment of the unhappy Ignatius. To add to Photius’s troubles, the Caesar Bardas appears to have had disputes with him, either influenced by the natural jealousy between the secular and ecclesiastical powers, or, perhaps, disappointed at not finding in Photius the subserviency he had anticipated. The letters of Photius addressed to Bardas (Epistole, 3, 6, 8) contain abundant complaints of the diminution of his authority, of the ill-treatment of those for whom he was interested, and of the inefficacy of his own intercessions and complaints. However, the opposition :among his own clergy was gradually weakened, until only five bishops remained who supported the cause of Ignatius. Yet, notwithstanding these defections from the deposed patriarch, Photius labored zealously for a restoration of friendly feelings between himself and the Western patriarch. Nicholas, however, spurned all advances, and in A.D. 863 anathematized and deposed Photius anew. Of course the Roman patriarchate, failing to secure the aid of the Eastern emperor, could not give practical effect to the deposition, and Photius remained in his place. In order to retaliate on Rome, he now assembled a council of the Eastern clergy at Constantinople (A.D. 867), in which the question was removed from the region of a personal dispute between the bishops to a controversy of doctrine and discipline between the churches of the East and West themselves. In this council Photius first brought forward distinctly certain grounds of difference between the churches, which, although considerably modified, afterwards led to their final separation. In all these doctrinal differences, the council condemned the Western Church, excommunicated Nicholas and his abettors, and withdrew from the communion of the see of Rome. The charge of heresy against the Church of Rome in general was embraced in the following articles:
1. That the Church of Rome kept the Sabbath as a fast;
2. That it permitted milk and cheese in the first week of Lent;
3. That it prohibited the marriage of priests;
4. That it con fined the rite of anointing persons baptized to the bishops alone;
5. That it had corrupted the Nicene Creed by the addition of the words filioque.
As neither party had the secular power wherewith to carry its sentence into effect, the separation of the Eastern’ and Western churches became simply a schism, and as such lasted until the actual deposition of Photius, A.D. 869.
Of the conduct which controlled Photius as patriarch, in matters not connected with the struggle to maintain his position, it is not easy to judge. That he aided Bardas, who was elevated to the dignity of Caesar, in his efforts for the revival of learning, perhaps suggested those efforts to him, is highly probable from his indisputable love of literature (Theoph. Contin. De Mich. Theophili 1ilio, c. 26). That he possessed many kindly dispositions is indicated by his letters. The charges of the forgery of letters, and of cruelty in his struggles with the party of Ignatius, are, there is reason to believe, too true; but as almost all the original sources of information respecting his character and conduct are from parties hostile to his claims, we cannot confidently receive their charges as true in all their extent. The murder of Caesar Bardas (A.D. 866 or 867), by the emperor’s order, was speedily followed by the assassination of Michael himself (A.D. 867), and the accession of his colleague and murderer, Basil I (the Macedonian). Photius had consecrated Basil as the colleague of Michael; but after the murder of the latter he refused to admit him to the communnion, reproaching him as a robber and a murderer, and unworthy to partake of the sacred elements. Photius was for this offence immediately banished to a monastery, and Ignatius restored: various papers which the servants of Photius were about to conceal in a neighboring reed-bed were seized, and afterwards produced against Photius, first in the senate of Constantinople, and afterwards at the council held against him. This hasty change in the occupants of the patriarchate had been too obviously the result of the change of the imperial dynasty to be sufficient of itself. But the imperial power had now the same interest as the Western Church in the deposition of Photiuls.
A council (recognised by the Romish Church as the eighth oecumenical or fourth Constantinopolitan) was therefore summoned, A.D. 869, at which the deposition of Photius and the restoration of Ignatius were confirmed. The cause was in fact prejudged by the circumstance that Ignatius took his place as patriarch at the commencement of the council. Photius, who appeared before the council, and his partisans were anathematized and stigmatized with the most opprobrious epithets. He subsequently acquired the favor of Basil, but by what means is uncertain; for we can hardly give credence to the strange tale related by Nicetas (ibid.), who ascribes it to the forgery and interpretation by Photius of a certain genealogical document containing a prophecy of Basil’s exaltation. It is certain, however, not only that he gained the favor of the emperor, but that he soon acquired a complete ascendency over him; he was appointed tutor to the sons of Basil, had apartments in the palace assigned to him; and on the death of Ignatius, about A.D. 877, was immediately restored to the patriarchal throne. With writers of the Ignatian party and of the Romish Church this restoration is, of course, nothing less than a new irruption of the wolf into the sheepfold. According to Nicetas, he commenced his patriarchate by beating, banishing, and in various ways afflicting the servants and household of his defunct rival, and by using ten thousand arts against those who objected to his restoration as uncanonical and irregular. Some he bribed by gifts and honors, and by translation to wealthier or more eligible sees than those they occupied; others he terrified by reproaches and accusations, which, on their embracing his party, were speedily and altogether dropped. That, in the corrupt state of the Byzantine empire and Church, something of this must have happened at such a crisis, there can be little doubt; though there can be as little doubt that these statements are much exaggerated. It is probable that one great purpose of Basil in restoring Photius to the patriarchate was to do away with divisions in the Church, for it is not to be supposed that Photius was without his partisans. But to effect this purpose he had to gain over the Western Church. Nicholas had been succeeded by Hadrian II, and he by John VIII (some reckon him to be John IX), who now occupied the papal chair.
John was more pliant than Nicholas, and Basil was a more energetic prince than the dissolute Michael; the pope therefore yielded to the urgent entreaties of a prince whom it would have been dangerous to disoblige; recognised Photius as lawful patriarch, and excommunicated those who refused to hold communion with him. Pope John’s yielding attitude in this case betrayed so much womanly weakness that it is, in the opinion of some, thought to have been the origin of that fable about popess Joan (q.v.), in that it obtained for him the feminine sobriquet Joanna. But the recognition was on condition that he should resign his claim to the ecclesiastical superiority of the Bulgarians, whose archbishops and bishops were claimed as subordinates by both Rome and Constantinople; and is said to have been accompanied by strong assertions of the superiority of the Roman see. The copy of the letter in which John’s consent was given is a re-translation from the Greek, and is asserted by Romish writers to have been falsified by Photius and his party. It is obvious, however, that this charge remains to be proved; and that we have no more security that the truth lies on the side of Rome than on that of Constantinople. The ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Bulgaria was no new cause of dissension: it had been asserted as strongly by the pious Ignatius as by his successor (comp. Joan. VIII Papae Epistol. 78, apud Concil. page 63, etc.). Letters from the pope to the clergy of Constantinople and to Photius himself were also sent, but the extant copies of these are said to have been equally corrupted by Photius. Legates were sent by the pope, and even the copies of their Commonitorium, or letter of instruction, are also said to be falsified; but these charges need to be carefully sifted. Among the asserted additions is one in which the legates are instructed to declare the council of A.D. 869 (reputed by the Romish Church to be the eighth oecumenical or fourth Constantinopolitan), at which Photius had been deposed, to be null and void. Another council, which the Greeks assert to be the eighth cecunfenical one, but which the Romanists reject, was held at Constantinople A.D. 879. The papal legates were present, but Photius presided, and had everything his own way. The restoration of Photius and the nullity of the council of A.D. 869 were affirmed: the words “filioque” (q.v.), which formed one of the standing subjects of contention between the two churches, were ordered to be omitted from the creed, and the jurisdiction of the Bulgarian Church was referred to the emperor as a question affecting the boundaries of the empire. The pope refused to recognise the acts of the council, with the exception of the restoration of Photius, though they had been assented to by his legates, whom on their return he condemned, and then anathematized Photius afresh (Baron. Annal. Eccles. ad ann. 880, volumes 11, 13). The schism and rivalry of the churches became greater than ever, and has never since been really healed. SEE GREEK CHURCH.
Photius, according to Nicetas (ibid.), had been assisted in regaining the favor of Basil by the monk Theodore or Santabaren; but other writers reverse the process, and ascribe to Photius the introduction of Santabaren to Basil. Photius certainly made him archbishop of Euchaita, in Pontus; and he enjoyed, during Photius’s patriarchate, considerable influence with Basil. By an accusation, true or false, made by this man against Leo, the emperor’s eldest surviving son and destined successor, of conspiring his father’s death, Basil had been excited to imprison his son. So far, however, was Photius from joining in the designs of Santabaren, that it was chiefly upon his urgent entreaties the emperor spared the eyes of Leo, which he had intended to put out. Basil died A.D. 886, and Leo VI succeeded to the throne. He inmediately set about the ruin of Santabaren; and, forgetful of Photius’s intercession, scrupled not to involve the patriarch in his fall. Andrew and Stephen, two officers of the court, whom Santabaren had formerly accused of some offence, now charged Photius and Santabaren with conspiring to depose the emperor, and to place a kinsman of Photius on the throne. The charge appears to have been utterly unfounded, but it answered the purpose. An officer of the court was sent to the church of St. Sophia, who ascended the ambo, or pulpit, and read to the assembled people articles of accusation against the patriarch. Photius was immediately led into confinement, first in a monastery, afterwards in the palace of Pegae; and Santabaren was brought in custody from Euchaita and confronted with him; the two accusers, with three other persons, were appointed to conduct the examination, a circumstance sufficient to show the nature and spirit of the whole transaction. The firmness of the prisoners, and the impossibility of proving the charge against them, provoked the emperor’s rage. Santabaren was cruelly beaten, deprived of his eyes, and banished; but was afterwards recalled, and survived till the reign of Constantine Porph’rogenitus, the successor of Leo. Photius was banished to the monastery of Bordi, in Armenia (or rather in the Thema Armeniacum), where he seems to have remained till his death. He was buried in the church of a nunnery at Merdosagares. The year in which his death occurred is not ascertained. Pagi, Fabricius, and Mosheim fix it in A.D. 891; but the evidence on which their statement rests is not conclusive. He must have been an aged man when he died, for he must have been in middle age when first chosen patriarch, and he lived after that event thirty years, and probably more. He was succeeded in the patriarchate by the emperor’s brother Stephen, first his pupil, then his syncellus, and one of his clergy. (Theoph. Continuat. lib. v, c. 100; lib. 6, c. 1-5; Symeon Magister, De Basil. Maced. c. 21; De Leone Basil. 2. c. 1; Georg. Monach. De Basil. c. 24; De Leone, c. 1-7.)
The character of Photius is by no means worthy of much respect. He was an able man of the world, but not influenced by the high principles which befitted his sacred office. Yet he was probably not below the average of the statesmen and prelates of his day; and certainly was not the monster that the historians and other writers of the Romish Church, whose representations have been too readily adopted by some moderns, would make him. A writer in the Edinburgh Review, 21:329, says, “He seems to have been very learned and very wicked a great scholar and a consummate hypocrite not only neglecting occasions of doing good, but perverting the finest talents to the worst purposes.” This is unjust; he lived in a corrupt age, and was placed in a trying position; and, without hiding or extenuating his crimes, it must be remembered that his private character remains unimpeached; the very story of his being a eunuch, which, though not having the appearance of truth, shows at least that he was not open to the charge of licentiousness; his firmness is attested by his repulse of Basil from the communion of the Church, and his mercifulness by his intercession for the ungrateful Leo. It must be borne in mind also that his history has come down to us chiefly in the representations of Ihis enemies. The principal ancient authorities have been referred to in the course of this narrative, though we have by no means cited all the places. We may add, Leo Grammaticus, Chronogralphia, pages 463-476, ed. Paris; Zonar. 16:4, 8, 11, 12; Cedren. Compend. pages 551, 569, 573, 593, ed. Paris; 2:172, 205, 213, 248, ed. Bonn; Glycas, Annal. pars 4, pages 293, 294, 297, etc., ed. Paris; pages 226, 228, 230, etc., ed. Venice; pages 544, 547, 552, ed. Bonn; Genesius, Reges, lib. 4, page 48, ed. Venice; page 100, ed. Bonn; Constantin. Maneass. Comnpend. Chron, verses 5133-5163, 5233, etc., 5309, etc.; Joel, Chronog. Compend. page 179, ed. Paris; pages 55, 56, ed. Bonn; Ephraem. De Patriarchis CP. col. 962:10,012-10,025, ed. Bonn.
Various notices and documents relating to his history generally, but especially to his conduct in reference to the schism of the churches, may be found in the Concilia, volumes 8, 9, ed. Labbe; volumes 5, 6, ed. Hardouin; volumes 15, 16, 17, ed. Mansi. Of modern writers, Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 858-886) is probably the fullest, but at the same time one of the most unjust. Hankius (De Byzantin. Rerum Scriptoribus, pars 1, c. 18) has a very ample memoir of Photius, which may be advantageously compared with that of Baronius, as its bias is in the opposite direction. See also Dupin, Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs Ecclsiastiques, Siecle 9, page 270, 2d ed. 1698. An essay by Francesco Fontani, De Photio Nove Romnce Episcopo ejusque Scriptis Dissertatio, prefixed to the first volume of his Novae Eruditorum Delicicte (Florence, 1785, 12mo), is far more candid than most of the other works by members of the Romish Church; and is in this respect far beyond the Memoire sur le Patriarche Photius, by M. Weguelin, in the Memoires de l’Academie Royale (de Prusse) des Sciences et Belles-Lettres, annee 1777 (Berlin, 1779, 4to), page 440, etc. Shorter accounts may be found in Mosheim (Eccles. Hist. by Murdock, book 3, cent. 9, part 2, c. 3, 27-32), and in the works cited at the close of this article. Fabricius has given a list of the councils held to determine questions arising out of the struggle of Ignatius and Photius for the patriarchate, or out of the contests of the Eastern and Western churches with regard to Photius. He has also given a list of writers respecting Photius, divided into 1. Those hostile to Photius; and 2. Those more favorable to him. Of the historians of the lower empire, Le Beau (Bas Empire, 54, 70, 38, etc.; 71, 72:1-3) is outrageously partial, inflaming the crimes of Photius, and rejecting as untrue, or passing over without notice, the record of those incidents which are honorable to him. Gibbon (Decline and Fall, c. 53, 60), more favorable, has two separate, but brief and unsatisfactory, notices of the patriarch.
Writings. The published works of Photius are the following:
1. , Myriobiblon seu Bibliotheca. This is the most important and valuable of the works of Photius. It may be described as an extensive review of ancient Greek literature by a scholar of immense erudition and sound judgment. It is an extraordinary monument of literary energy, for it was written while the author was engaged in his embassy to Assyria, at the request of Photius’s brother Tarasius, who was much grieved at the separation, and desired an account of the books which Photius had read in his absence. It thus conveys a pleasing impression, not only of the literary acquirements and extraordinary industry, but of the fraternal affection of the writer. It opens with a prefatory address to Tarasius, recapitulating the circumstances in which it was composed, and stating that it contained a notice of two hundred and seventy-nine volumes. The extant copies contain a notice of two hundred and eighty: the discrepancy, which is of little moment, may have originated either in the mistake of Photius himself, or in some alteration of the divisions by some transcriber. It has been doubted whether we have the work entire. An extant analysis, by Photius, of the Historia Ecclesiastica of Philostorgius (q.v.), by which alone some knowledge of the contents of that important work has been preserved to us, is so much fuller than the brief analysis of that work contained in the present text of the Bibliotheca, as to lead to the supposition that the latter is imperfect. “It is to be lamented,” says Valesius (De Critica, 1:29), “that many such abridgments and collections of extracts are now lost. If these were extant in the state in which they were completed by Photius, we should grieve less at the loss of so many ancient writers.” But Leiche has shown (Diatribe in Phot. Biblioth.) that we have no just reason for suspecting that the Bibliotheca is imperfect; and that the fuller analysis of Philostorgius probably never formed part of it, but was made at a later period. The two hundred and eighty divisions of the Bibliotheca must be understood to express the number of volumes (codices) or manuscripts, and not of writers or of works: the works of some writers, e.g. of Philo Judaeus (codd. 103-105), occupy several divisions; and, on the other hand, one division (e.g. cod. 125, Justini Martysris Scripta Varia), sometimes comprehends a notice of several different works written in one codex.
The writers examined are of all classes: the greater number, however, are theologians, writers of ecclesiastical history, and of the biography of eminent churchmen; but several are secular historians, philosophers, and orators, heathen or Christian, of remote or recent times, lexicographers, and medical writers; only one or two are poets, and those on religious subjects, and there are also one or two writers of romances or love tales. There is no formal classification of these various writers; though a series of writers or writings of the same class frequently occurs, e.g. the Acta of various councils (codd. 15-20); the writers on the Resurrection (codd. 21-23); and the secular historians of the Byzantine empire (codd. 6267). In fact, the works appear to be arranged in the order in which they were read. The notices of the writers vary much in length: those in the earlier part are very briefly noticed, the later ones more fully; their recent perusal apparently enabling the writer to give a fuller account of them; so that this circumstance confirms our observation as to the arrangement of the work. Several valuable works, now lost, are known to us chiefly by the analyses or extracts which Photius has given of them; among them are the Persica and Indica of Ctesias (q.v.), in cod. 72; the De Rebus post Alexandrum Mognum gestis, and the Parthica and the Bithynica of Arrian, in codd. 53, 92, and 93; the Historiae of Olympiodorus (q.v.), in cod. 80; the Narrationes of Conon, in cod. 186; the Nova Historia of Ptolemy Hephaestion, in cod. 190; the De Heracleae Ponticae Rebus of Memnon, in cod. 224; the Vita Isidori by Damascius, in cod. 242; the lost Declamationes of Himerius, in cod. 243; the lost books of the Bibliotheca of Diodorus Siculus, in cod. 244; the De Erythraeo (s. Rubro) Mari of Agatharchides, in cod. 250; the anonymous Vita Pauli CPolitani and Vita Athanasii, in codd. 257 and 258; the lost Orationes, genuine or spurious, of Antiphon, Isocrates, Lysias, Iseaus, Demosthenes, Hyperides, Deinarchus, and Lycurgus, in codd. 259-268; and of the Chrestomatheia of Helladius of Antinoopolis, in cod. 279; besides several theological and ecclesiastical and some medical works. The above enumeration will suffice to show the inestimable value of the Bibliotheca of Photius, especially when we reflect how much the value of his notices is enhanced by the soundness of his judgment. The first edition of the Bibliotheca was published by David Hoeschelius, under the title of , Liborum quos legit Photius Patriarcha Excerpta et Censurae (Augsburg, 1601, fol.). Some of the Epistolae of Photius were subjoined. The text of the Bibliotheca was formed on a collation of four MSS., and was accompanied with notes by the editor; but there was no Latin version. A Latin version and scholia, by Andreas Schottus of Antwerp, were published (ibid. 1606, fol.); but the version is inaccurate, and has been severely criticised. It was, however, reprinted, with the Greek text, under the title of , Photii Myriobiblon site Bibliotheca (Geneva, 1612, fol., and Rouen, 1653, fol.). This last edition is a splendid one, but inconvenient from its size. An edition, with a revised text, formed on a collation of four MSS. (whether any of them were the same as-those employed by Hoeschelius is not mentioned), was published by Immanuel Bekker (Berlin, 1824-25, 2 thin volumes 4to): it is convenient from its size and the copiousness of its index, but has neither version nor notes.
2. , Compendium Historie Ecclesiasticae Philostorgii quod dictavit Photius patriarcha. Cave regards this as a fragment of another work similar to the Bibliotheca, but his conjecture rests on no solid foundation. The Compendium is of great importance as preserving to us, though very imperfectly, an Arian statement of the ecclesiastical transactions of the busy period of the Arian controversy in the 4th century. It was first published, with a Latin version and copious notes, by Jacobus Gothofredus (Godefroi) (Geneva, 1643, 4to); and was reprinted with the other ancient Greek ecclesiastical historians by Henricus Valesius (Henri Valois) (Paris, 1673, fol.) and by Reading (Cambridge, 1720, fol.).
3. or , Nomocanon, s. Nomocanonon, a. Nomocanonus, s. Canonumn Ecclesiasticorum et Legum Imperialium de Ecclesiastica Disciplina Conciliatio s. Harmonia. This work, which bers ample testimony to the extraordinary legal attainments of its author, is arranged under fourteen , Tituli, and was prefixed to a / , Canonum Syntagma, or collection of the Cazones of the apostles and of the ecclesiastical councils recognised’by the Greek Church, compiled by Photius; from which circumstance it is sometimes called , Procanon. It has been repeatedly published, with the commenta” ries of Theodore Balsamon, who strongly recommended it, in preference to similar works of an earlier date: it appeared in the Latin version of Gentianus Hervetus (Paris, 1561, fol.), and in another Latin version of Henricus Agyvaeus (Basle, 1561, fol.), and in the original Greek text with the version of Agylaeus, edited by Christophorus Justellus (Paris, 1615, 4to). It was reprinted, with the version of Agylaeus, in the Bibliotheca Juris Canonici, published by Guillelmus Voellus and Henricus Justellus (Paris, 1661, fol.), 2:785, etc. The Nomocanon of Photius was epitomized in the kind of verses called politici by Michael Psellus. whose work iwas published, with one or two other of his pieces, by Franciscus Bosquetus (Paris, 1632, 8vo).
4. , De Septem Conciliis OEcumenicis. This piece subjoined, with a Latin version, to the Nomocanon in the Paris editions of 1615 and 1661, and often published elsewhere, is really part of one of the Epistolae of Photius, and is noticed in our account of them.
5. , Epistolas. There are extant a considerable number of the letters of Photius. The MSS. containing them are enumerated by Fabricius (Bibl. Graec. 11:11). It is much to be regretted that no complete collection of them has been published. David Hoeschelius subjoined to his edition of the Bibliotheca (Augsburg, 1601, fol.), mentioned above, thirty-five letters selected from a MS. collection which had belonged to Maximus Margunius, bishop of Cerigo, who lived about the end of the 16th century. One consolatory letter to the nun Eusebia on her sister’s death was published by Conrad Rittershausius, with a Latin version, with some other pieces (Ntirnberg, 1601, 8vo). But the largest collection is that prepared with a Latin version and notes by Richard Mountagu (Latinized Montacutius), bishop of Norwich, and published after his death (Lond. 1651, fol.). The Greek text was from a MS. in the Bodleian Library. The collection comprehends two hundred and forty-eight letters translated by the bishop, and a supplement of five letters brought from the East by Christianus Ravius, of which also a Latin version by another person is given. The first letter in Mountagu’s collection is addressed to Michael, prince of the Bulgarians, on the question , De Officio Principis: it is very long, dnd contains the account of the seven general councils already mentioned (No. 4), as subjoined to the printed editions of the Nomocanon. This letter to prince Michael was translated into French verse by Bernard, a Theatin monk, dedicated to Louis XV, and published (Paris, 1718, 4to).
The second letter, also of considerable length, is an encyclical letter on various disputed topics, especially on that of the procession of the Holy Spirit, the leading theological question in dispute between the Eastern and Western churches. Mountagu’s version has been severely criticised by Combefis (Fabricius, Bibl. Graec. 1:701, note f f f). Several important letters are not included in the collection, especially two to pope Nicholas I, and one to the archbishop or patriarch of Aquileia, on the procession of the Holy Spirit, of all of which Baronius had given a Latin version in his Annales Ecclesiastici (ad ann. 859, 61, etc.; 861, 34, etc.; and 883:5, etc.). Fragments of the Greek text of the letters to pope Nicholas were cited by Allatius in different parts of his works; the original of the letter to the archbishop of Aquileia was published in the Auctarium Novissinmum of Combefis, part 1, page 527, etc. (Paris, 1672, fol.), with a new Latin version and notes by the editor; and the original of all the three letters, together with a previously unpublished letter, Ad OEconomum Ecclesive Antiochiae, and the encyclical letter on the procession of the Holy Spirit (included in Mountagu’s collection), the Acta of the eighth cecumenical council (that held in 879, at which the second appointment of Photius to the patriarchate was ratified), and some other pieces, with notes by Dositheus, patriarch of Jerusalem, were published by Anthimus “Episcopus Remnicus,” i.e., bishop of Rimnik, in Wallachia, in his (Rimnik, 1705, fol.). A letter, Ad Theophanem Monachum, i.e., to Theophanes Cerameus, with a Latin version by Sirmond, was published by the Jesuit Franciscus Scorsus, in his Proommiune Secundum, 3, to the Homilice of Cerameus (Paris, 1644, fol.), and another letter, Stauracio Spatharo-candidato, Praefecto insule Cypri, was included in the Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenta of Cotelerius (2:104), together with a short piece, , Quod non oporteat adpresentis vitce molestias attendere, which, though not bearing the form of a letter (perhaps it is a fragment of one), is in the MS. classed with the Epistole. A Latin version, from the Armenian, of some fragments of an Epistola Photii ad Zachariam Armeniae Patriarcham, in support of the doctrine of the Council of Chalcedon, is given in the Conciliatio Ecclesiae Armeniae cum Romana of Galanus (Rom. 1650, fol.). To all these we may add the Epistola Tarasio Fratri, usually subjoined to the Bibliotheca. The Epistola ad Zachariam, just mentioned, and another letter, Ad Principem A rmenium A sutium, are extant in MS. in an Armenian version (comp. Mai, Scriptor. Veterum Nov. Collectio, Proleg. in volume 1, Rom. 1825, 4to).
6. s. , Lexicon. Marquardus Gudius, of Hamburg, had an anonymous MS. lexicon, which he believed and asserted to be that of Photius; but the correctness of his opinion was first doubted by some, and is now given up by most scholars; and another lexicon, much shorter, and.which is in the MSS. ascribed to Photius, is now admitted to be the genuine work of that eminent man. Of this Lexicon there exist several MSS., but that known as the Codex Galeanus, because given by Thomas Gale to the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, is considered to be the archetype from which the others have been transcribed; but this MS. is in itself very imperfect, containing in fact not much more than half the original work. Nearly the whole of the lexicon known as the Lexicon Sangermanease, a portion of which was published in the Anecdota Grceca of Immanuel Bekker (Berlin, 1814, 8vo), 1:319, etc., appears to have been incorporated in the Lexicon of Photius, of which, when entire, it is estimated to have formed a third part (Prcefat. to Porson’s edition). The Lexicon of Photius was first published, from Continental MSS., by Gothofredus Hermannus (Leips. 1808, 4to). It formed the third volume of a set, of which the first two volumes contained the Lexicon ascribed to Joannes Zonaras. The publication of the Lea icon was followed by that of a Libellus Aninadversionum ad Photii Lexicon (Leips. 1810, 4to), and Curce Novissimce sive Appendix Notarunm et Emendationum in Photii Lexicon (Leips. 1812, 4to), both by Jo. Fried. Schleusner. But the edition of Hermann having failed to satisfy the wants of the learned, an edition from a transcript of the Codex Galeanus, made by Porson, was published after the death of that eminent scholar (Lond. 1822, 4to and 8vo). (Comp. Edinb. Rev. 21:329, etc., No. 42, July 1813, and Class. Journ. l.c.)
7. , Amphilochia. This work, which Allatius, not a friendly censor, declared to be “a work filled with vast and varied learning, and very needful for theologians and expositors of Scripture,” is in the form of answers to certain questions, and is addressed to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus. The answers are said in one MS. (apud Fabricius, Bibl. Grce. 11:26) to be two hundred and ninety-seven in number; but Montfaucon (l.c.) published an index of three hundred and eight, and a Vatican MS., according to Mai (Script. Vet. Nova Collectio, volume 1, Proleg. page 39), contains three hundred and thirteen. Of these more than two hundred and twenty have been published, but in various fragmentary portions (Mai, l.c.). The first portion which appeared in print was in the Lectiones A ntiquce of Canisius (Ingolstadt, 1604, etc., 4to), 5:188, etc., who gave a Latin version, by Franciscus Turrianus, of six of the Quaestiones; but the work to which they belonged was not mentioned. In the subsequent edition of the Lectiones by Basnage (Amsterd. 1725, 4to, volume 2, part 2, page 240, etc.), the Greek text of five of the six was added (the original of the sixth seems never to have been discovered), as well as the Greek text of a seventh Quaestio, “De Christi Voluntatibus Gnomicis,” of which a Latin version by Turrianus had been published in the Auctarium Antiquarum Canisii Lectionuml of the Jesuit Petrus Stewartius (Ingolstadt, 1616, 4to); also without notice that it was from the Ampshilochia. Further additions were made by Combefis, in his SS. Patrum Amphilochii, etc., Opera (Paris, 1644, 2 volumes, fol.) (by a strange error he ascribed the work not to Photius, but to Amphilochius of Iconium, a much older writer, from whose works he supposed Photius had made a selection), and in his Novum Auctarium (Paris, 1648), 2 volumes, fol.; by Montfaucon, in his Bibliotheca Coisliniana (Paris, 1715, fol.); and by Jo. Justus Spier, in Wittenbergische Anmerkungen uber theologische, philosophische, historische, philologische, und kritische Materien (Wittenberg, 1738, 8vo), part 1 (Harles, Introd. in Historiam Linguae Graec. Supplem. 2:47). But the principal addition was made by Jo. Chr. Wolff, of forty-six Quaestiones, published, with a Latin version, in his Curae Philologicae (Hamb. 1735, 4to), volume 5 ad fin.; these were reprinted in the Bibliotheca Patrum of Galland (Venice, 1779, fol.), volume 13. A further portion of eighteen Quaestiones, under the title , Ex Photii Amphilochiis qucedam, was published, with a Latin version, by Angelus Antonius Schottus (Naples, 1817, 4to); and some further portions, one of twenty Quaestiones, with a Latin version by Mai, in his Scriptorum Veterum Nova Collectio, 1:193, etc., and another of a hundred and thirty Quaestiones, in 9:1, etc. As many of the Quaestiones were mere extracts from the Epistolce and other published works of Photius, Mai considers that with these and with the portions published by him, the whole of the Amphilochia has now been published. He thinks (Scriptor. Vet. Nova Collect. volume 1, Proleg. p. 40) that the patriarch, towards the close of his life, compiled the work from his own letters, homilies, commentaries, etc., and addressed it to his friend Amphilochius, as a mark of respect, and not because the questions which were solved had actually been proposed to him by that prelate; and he thus accounts for the identity of many passages with those in the author’s other works.
8. Adversus Manichaeos s. Paulicianos Libri Quatuor. No Greek title of the whole work occurs, but the four books are respectively thus described: 1. , Narratio de Manicheeis recens repullulantibus. 2. , Dubia et Solutiones Manichceorum. 3. , Photii Sernmo II. 4. , ,, Contra repulluiantem Manicheorum Eirrorem ad Arsenium Monachum Sanctissimum Presbyterumn et Praefectum Sacrorum. The title of the second book is considered by Wolff to apply to the second, third, and fourth books, which formed the argumentative part of the work. and to which the first book formed a historical introduction. The second book is intended to show that the same God who created spiritual intelligences also created the bodies with which they are united, and the material world generally; the third vindicates the divine origin of the Old Testament; and the fourth reiterates some points of the second and third books, and answers the objections of the Paulicians. The first book has several points in common with the historical work of Petrus Siculus on the same subject, so as to make it probable that one writer used the work of the other, and it is most likely Photius availed himself of that of Petrus. This important work of Photius was designed for publication by several scholars (see Wolff, Praefat. in Anecdot. Graec. volume 1; and Fabricius, Bibl. Graec. 7:329; 11:18), but they were prevented by death from fulfilling their purpose. Montfaucon published the first book, with a Latin version, in his Bibliotheca Coisliniana (page 349, etc.); and the whole work was given by Jo. Christoph. Wolff, with a Latin version and notes, in his Anecdota Grceca (Hamb. 1722, 12mo), volumes 1:ii, from which it was reprinted in volume 13 of the Bibliotheca Patrum of Galland (Venice, 1779, fol.). A sort of epitome of this work of Photius is found in the Panoplia of Euthymius Zigabenus. Oudin contended that the work of Metrophanes of Smyrnla. on the Manichaeans and on the Holy Spirit, was identical with this work of Photius; but this opinion is erroneous.
9. , A dversus Latinos de Processione Spiritus Sacfti. This work is incorporated in the Greek text of the Panoplia of Euthymius Zigabenus (Tergovist. 1710, fol., pages 112, 113), of which it constitutes the thirteenth or section. It.is omitted in the Latin versions of Euthymius. The work of Photius contains several syllogistic propositions, which are quoted and answered seriatim in the De Unione Ecclesiarum Oratio I, of Joannes Veccus, published in the Graecia Orthodoxa of Allatius (Rome, 1652, 4to), 1:154, etc. It is apparently the work entitled by Cave Disputatio Compendiaria de Processione Spiritus Sancti a solo Patre.
10. Homiliae. Several of these have been published:
(1.) , Descriptio Novae Sanctissimae Dei Genitricis Ecclesiae, in Palatio a Basilio Macedone exstsructae; a discourse delivered on the dav of the dedication of the church described. It was first printed by Lambecius, in his notes to the work of Georgius Codinus, De Originibus CPolitanis (Paris, 1655, fol.), page 187, and is contained, with a Latin version. in the Bonn reprint of Codinus (1839, 8vo). It is also contained in the Originumn CPolitanarum Manipulus of Coamefis (Paris, 1664, 4to), page 296, with a Latin version and notes; and in the Imperium Orientale of Bandurius (Paris, 1711, fol.), pars 3, page 117.
(2.) , Homilia in Sanctissimae Dei Genitricis Natalem Diem, published by Combefis in his Auctarium Novumn (Paris, 1648, fol.), volume 1, col. 1583, and in a Latin version, in his Bibliotheca Patrum concionatoria (Paris, 1662, fol. etc.). Both text and version are reprinted in the Bibliotheca Patrum of Galland.
(3.) In Sepulturam Domini; a fragment, probably from this, is given by Mai (Scriptor, Vet. Nova l Collect. Proleg. in volume 1, page 41).
(4.) , Quod nomn oporteat ad prcesentis Vitce Molestios attendere.’ This piece, which is perhaps not a homily, but the fragment of a letter, was published in the Ecelesie Greece Monumenta of Cotelerius, and has already been noticed in speaking of the Epistolae of Photius.
11. , Interrogationes decemn cune totidem’Responsionibus, s. , Collectiones accurataeque Demonstrationes de Episcopis et Metropolitis et reliquis allis necessariis Quaestionibus ex Synodicis et Historicis Monumentis excerptae. This piece was published, with a Latin version and notes, by Francesco Fontani, in the first volume of his Notae Eruditorum Deliciae (Florence; 1785, 12mo). The notes were such as to give considerable offence to “the stricter Romanists. (Mai, Scriptor. Veteo. Nov. Collect. Proleg. ad volume 1, page 44).
12. , In Lucam Expositiones. Some brief Scheoliaon the Gospel of Luke from MSS. Cafenae, are given, with a Latin version, in volume 1 of the Scriptorum Vetesume Nova Collectio of Mai, page 189, etc., but from which of Photius’s’ works they are taken does not appear.
13. Canonica Responsa, addressed to Leo, archbishop of Calabria; also published, with a Latin version, by Mai (ibid. page 362), from a Palimpsest in the Vatican Library.
Many works of this great writer still remain in MS.:
1. Commentarius in D. Paculi Epistolas, a mutilated copy of which is (or was, according to Cave) in the public library at Cambridge. It is largely cited by OEcumenius.
2. Catena in Psalmos. formerly in the Coislinian library, of which, according to Montfalcon (Bibl. Coislin. pages 58, 59), Photius appears to have been the compiler. Bunt the Commentary on the Prophets, Prophetarum Libe; ascribed to him by Cave, Fabricius, and others, appears to have no real existence; the supposition of its existence was founded on the misapprehension of a passage in Possevino’s Apparatus Sacer (Mai, Proleg. ut sup. page 1).
3. Homiice XIV, extant in MS. at 3 Moscow, of the subjects of which a list is given in the Auctarium Novissimum (ad calc. volume 1) of Combefis, in the De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis of Oudin (col. 210, etc.), and in the Ribl. Graeca (11:80, etc.) of Fabricius. To these may be added two other homilies, De Ascensione, and In Festo Epiphaniae, and an Enconmium Poto Martyis Theole (Fabricius, ibid.).
4. Odae. Nine are or were extant in a MS. formerly belonging to the college of Clermont, at Paris, and three in an ancient Barberini MS. at Rome. The latter are described bv Mai (Proleg. page 44) as of moderate length, and written in pleasing verse. Some Epigrammata of Photius are said to be extant (Montfaucon, Bibl. Coislin. page 520); but the , In Methodiunt Col., said to be given in the Acta Sanctorum, Junii, 2:969, is not to be found there.
5. , Epitome Actorum Conciliorum septem Generalium. This is described by Cave and Fabricius as a different work from the published piece (No. 4, above). Some critics have doubted whether it is different from the similar work ascribed to Photius of Tyre; but as this prelate lived in the time of the third or fourth councils, he could not have epitomized the Acta of the fifth, sixth, and seventh. Thus the Epitome cannot be by Photius of Tyre, whatever doubt there may be as to its being the work of our Photius.
6. The Syntagmna Canonum has already been mentioned in speaking of the Nomocanon;
7. , De Spiritus Sancti Disciplina Arcixna, s. , uber de Spiritu Sancto, addressed to a bishop Bedas, and different from the published work (No, 9). It is described by Mai, who has given some extracts (Proleg. page 45), as “liber lucalentus, varius, atque prolixus.” It is ascribed in one MS., but by an obvious error, to Metrophanes of Smyrna.
8. , A dversus Latinorum Ecclesiam Criminationes Particulares.
9. Contrea Flancos et Latinos (ibid. page 48); a very short piece. Various other pieces are mentioned by Cave, Lambecius, Fabricius, and Mai, as extant in MS.; but some of these are only fragments of the published writings (ibid. page 1) enumerated by mistake as separate works.’ The work In Categories Aristotelis, now or formerly extant in Vienna and Paris, is apparently a part of the Amphilochia (ibid. page 36). The works De Episcopis et Metropolitis, and the Annotatio del Patriarchis sede sua injuste pulsis) mentioned by Cave and Fabricius, appear to be either the Interrogationes decem published by Fontani, or a part of that work. (See No. 11 of the published works.) The Symbolem Fidei mentioned by Lambecimus, Cave, and Harles (Fabricius, Bibl. Graec. 11:30), part of one of the letters to pope Nicholas; and the Liber de Pulsione Ignatii ac Restitutione mentioned by Montfaucon (Bibl. Bibliothecarum, page 123), is also part of a letter of pope Nicholas; and the fragmrent De decem Oratoribus, mentioned by Vossius and others, and extant in MS. in the King’s Library at Paris, is probably from the Bibliotheca (Mai, Proleg. page 1). Some works have perished, as that against the heretic Leontius of Antioch, mentioned by Suidas (s.v. ). Photius wrote also against the emperor Julian (Phot. Epist. 187, ed. Montac.), and in defence of the use of images. Some writings, or fragmrents of writings of his on this subject (Adversus Iconomachos et Paulicianos, and De Differential inter sacras Imagines atque Idola) are extant in the Imperial Library at Vienna, but whether in distinct works, or under what title does not appear to be known.
In the Synodicon of bishop Beveridge (volume 2, ad fin. part 1) a short piece is given, of which the running title is Balsamon in Photii Interrogationes quorumdam Monachorum; but the insertion of the name of Photius is altogether incorrect; the work belongs to the time of the emperor Alexius I Comnenus. The Exegesis, or Commentary of Elias Cretensis on the Scula Paradisi of Joannes Climacus, is, in a MS. of the Coislinian library (Montfaucon, Bibl. Coislin. page 141), improperly ascribed to Photius.
Two learned Romanists, Joannes Andresius and Jacobus Morellius, have in recent times contemplated the publication of a complete edition of the works of Photius; the latter proceeded so far as to draw up a Coinspectus of his proposed edition (Mai, Proleg. page 44). But unfirtunately the design has never been completed. Migie has published an edition in 4 volumes, roy. 8vo, which he claims to be complete, but it is hardly as critical as the works of the greatest genius of his age deserves. This edition is entitled Photii, Constantinopolitani patriarcher, opera omnia in classes quinque distributa: exegetica, dogmatica, parmenetica, historiccaanonica. etc., accurante J.P. Migne (tomes 1 et 4, in grande a deux colonnes, 1416 p., Paris, impr. et libr. J.P. Migne, 1860. Veneunt 4 volumes, 42 francis gallicis). See Cave, Hist. Litt. 2:47, etc. (ed. Oxford, 1740-1743); Fabricius, Biblioth. Graec. 1:701; 6:603; 7:803; 10:670 to 11:37; 12:185, 210, 216, 348; Oudin, Comment. de Scriptorib. et Scriptis Eccles. volume 2, col. 200, etc.; Hankius, De Rerum Byzantin. Scriptorib. pars 1, c. 18; Dupin, Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs Eccls, IXme Siecle, page 346 (2me ed. 1698); Ceillier, Auteurs Sacres, 19:426, etc.; Ittigius, De Bibliothecis Patrum, passim; Gallandius, Biblioth. Patrum, Proleg; in volume 13; Fontani, De Photio.Nove Romae Episcopo ejusque Scriptis Dissertatio, prefixed to volume 1 of the Novae Eruditorum Deliciae; Mai, Scriptor. Vet. Nova Collectio, Proleg. in volume 1; Assemani, Bibliotheca Juris Orientalis, lib. 1, c. 2, 7, 8, 9; Vossius, De Historicis Graecis, lib. 2, c. 25; Donaldson’s Literatuae (see Index in volume 2); Lea, Sacerdotal Celibacy (see Index), Ffoullkes, Divisions of Christendom, volume 2, chapter 1; Flenry, Hist. Ecclesiastique; Maimbourg, Schisme des Grecs; Dollinger, Lehrbuch der Kirchengesch. volume 1; Jager, Hist. de Photius, d’apres les monuments origineaux (Paris, 1845).