Psalms, Book of

Psalms, Book of

A collection of Divinely inspired hymns or poems in the Canon of the Old Testament as accepted by Jews and Christians; also known as the Psalter of David of 150 Psalms (Council of Trent). Psalm is from psalmos, the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew Mizmor (the title prefixed to 57 hymns in the collection), signifying “a song to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument, the psaltery or lyre.” The Hebrew title of the book is “Tehilim” (hymns or songs of praise). Though David should be regarded as the chief author, since 73 psalms bear his name, he is not the sole author. Others designated in the collection are: Moses, Psalm 89; Solomon, Psalms 71 and 126; Asaph, a choir leader (1 Par. 6), Psalms 49, 72-82 (probably composed by members of this family at different times between David’s reign and the Exile, 583 B.C.); Eman, Psalm 87 (sons of Core mentioned); Ethan the Ezrahite, Psalm 88. The Sons of Core (2 Par. 20), is a designation of a guild of Temple singers, who composed or collected Psalms 83, 84, 86, and perhaps 87. Psalms bearing no mark of authorship are called “orphan psalms.” While a few psalms may have been composed in the Machabean era, the vast majority were not only written, but the collection appears to have been practically completed, c.529 B.C. Although the number 150 is traditional, the enumeration of individual psalms, between Psalm 9 and Psalm 146, has not been uniform in the different versions. We need not assume that the present form represents the original in its entirety. The Biblical Commission admits the acceptance of the theory that alterations, omissions, and transpositions may have taken place even in the Miserere, for liturgical, musical, or other reasons, provided the inspiration of the entire work be accepted. The Vulgate represents a translation made from the Hexapla by Saint Jerome in 392 to replace a correction of the Vetus Latina which he himself had made, c.383. The latter is still used in the Missal and in the Office as recited in Saint Peter’s, Rome.

The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, based to some extent upon the titles, each section save the last closing with a doxology:

Psalms 1-40

Psalms 41-71

Psalms 72-88

Psalms 89-105

Psalms 105-150

The Biblical Commission directs that the importance of the titles, especially with regard to authorship, be not lightly set aside. Nearly 100 psalms have titles indicative of authorship, historical occasion, musical notation, or type of poetry. Each of the psalms has its own theme and purpose. Broadly speaking, eight classes may be distinguished:

hymns (thanksgiving, praise of God, His attributes and works in Nature and Grace), 8, 17, 102-106, 145-150 (Alleluiatic )

petition, 29, 63, 73, 93

didactic (moral), 1,48, 118

penitential , 6, 31, 37, 50, 101, 129, 142

imprecatory , 17, 34, 58, I 68, 78, 93, 108, 129

historical accounts of God’s Providence toward Israel, 75, 104, 105, 113, 134, 135

Gradual , or pilgrim , 119-133

Messianic, 2, 15, 21, 44, 68, 71, 109

The Divine character of the Book of Psalms is vouched for by Christ and the Apostles , who use it more than any other book of Scripture. In the Church it has always been regarded as a source of Divine truth. Its use for public worship and private devotion passed from the Synagogue to the early, Church, which, following the example of Christ, employed it in the celebration of the Eucharist, and other liturgical services. Today the Psalter forms the main part of the Breviary, the whole being recited normally in the course of a week. It is employed in the Introit, Gradual, and Offertory of the Mass.

Fuente: New Catholic Dictionary

Psalms, Book Of

one of the most important of the Biblical components, standing in the English Scriptures at the beginning of the practical or experimental books, and in the Hebrew Bible of the Kethubim, or Hagiographa. In the following accounts we follow the general line of the works on Biblical interpretation; bunt we have thrown some new light, we trust, especially upon the difficult questions colnnected with the titles of the several Psalms. SEE BIBLE.

I. General Title of the Book. This collection of sacred poetry received its English name, Psalms, from the Greek of the Septuagint, , in consequence of the lyrical character of the pieces of which it consists, as intended to be sung to stringed and other instruments of music. The word (from , to touch or strike a chord) is aptly defined by Gregory of Nyssa (Tract. ii, in Psalmos, c. 3) as melody produced by a musical instrument. Another name, Psalter, was given to this book from the Greek , the stringed instrument to which its contents were originally sung. SEE PSALTERY.

It does not appear how the Psalms were, as a whole, anciently designated. Their present Hebrew appellation is , Tehillim, elsewhere rendered Praises. But in the actual superscriptions of the psalms the word , is applied only to one, Psalms 145, which is indeed emphatically a praise-hymn. The Sept. (as above noted) entitled them , or Psalms, using the word at the same time as the translation of , mizmor, which signifies strictly a rhythmical composition (Lowth, Prcelect. 3), and which was probably applied in practice to any poem specially intended, by reason of its rhythm, for musical performance with instrumental accompaniment. But the Hebrew word is, in the Old Test., never used elsewhere in the plural; and in the superscriptions of even the Davidic psalms it is applied only to some, not to all; probably to those which had been composed most expressly for the harp. The Hebrew title, (Rabbinic form,with elided, or , tillim or tilbin), signifies hymns or praises, and was probably adopted on account of the use made of the collection in divine service, though only a part can be strictly called songs of praise, not a few being lamentations and prayers. There is evidently no proper correspondence between the titles in the two languages, though each is suitable. The word answering to is , and not , which rather (as above noted) corresponds to

, m? izmorilm, lyrical odes a name which, though so plainly appropriate, does not appear to have been generally given to the book, at least so far as the Hebrew usage can now be ascertained. This is the more singular, inasmuch as no fewer than sixty-five of the songs distinctly bear the title of , while only one (Psa 145:1) is styled . That the name did, however, obtain in ancient times, rather than the present title, , may be presumed from the use of in the Sept. and the New Test., and of mizmera in the Peshito. SEE PRAISE.

In Psa 72:20 we find all the preceding compositions (1-72) styled Prayers of David, because many of them are strictly prayers, and all are pervaded by the spirit and tone of supplication. This notice has suggested that the Psalms may in the earliest times have been known as , tephill th, Prayers; and, in fact, Prayer is the title prefixed to the most ancient of all the psalms, that of Moses (Psalms 90). But the same designation is in the superscriptions applied to only three besides, Psalms 17, 86, 102; nor have all the psalms the character of prayers. SEE PRAYER.

The other special designations applied to particular psalms are the following: , Shir, Song, the outpouring of the soul in thanksgiving, used in the first instance of a hymn of private gratitude (Psalms 30), afterwards of hymns of great national thanksgiving (Psalms 46, 48, 65, etc.); , alskil, Instruction or Homily (Psalms 32, 42, 44 etc.; comp. the!, I will instruct thee, in Psa 32:8); , Mliktim, Private Memorial, if from the root (perhaps also with an anagrammatical allusion to the root , to support, maintain; comp. Psa 16:5) (Psalm 16:56-59); , Eduth, Testimony (Psalms 60, 80); and , Shiggayon, Irregular or Dithyrambic Ode (Psalms 7). The strict meaning of these terms is in general to be gathered from the earlier superscriptions. Once made familiar to the psalmists, they were afterwards employed by them more loosely. (See 4 below.)

II. Numeration of the Psalms. The Christian Church obviously received the Psalter from the Jews not only as a constituent portion of the sacred volume of Holy Scripture, but also as the liturgical hymn-book which the Jewish Church had regularly used in the Temple. The number of separate psalms contained in it is, by the concordant testimony of all ancient authorities, one hundred and fifty; the avowedly supernumerary psalm which appears at the end of the Greek and Syriac Psalters, on David’s victory over Goliath, being manifestly apocryphal. This total number commends itself by its internal probability as having proceeded from the last sacred collector and editor of the Psalter. In the details, however, of the numbering, both the Greek and Svriac Psalters differ from the Hebrew. The Greek translators joined together Psa 9:10 and Psalms 114, 115, and then divided Psalms 116 and Psalms 147; this was perpetuated in the versions derived from the Greek, and among others in the Latin Vulgate. The Syriac so far followed the Greek as to join together Psalms 114, 115, and to divide Psalms 147. Of the three divergent systems of numbering, the Hebrew (as followed in our A.V.) is, even on internal grounds, to be preferred. It is decisive against the Greek numbering that Psalms 116, being symmetrical in its construction, will not bear to be divided; and against the Syriac that it destroys the outward correspondence in numerical place between the three great triumphal psalms, Psalms 18, 68, 118, as also between the two psalms containing the praise of the Law, Psalms 19, 119. That Psalms 42, 43 were originally one is evident from the continuation of the refrain. There are also some discrepancies in the versual numberings. That of our A.V. frequently differs from that of the Hebrew in consequence of the Jewish practice of reckoning the superscription as the first verse. SEE VERSE.

III. Ancient Collection and Division. When the Psalms, as a whole, were collected, and by whom, are questions that cannot be confidently answered. The Talmudists most absurdly considered David the collector of them all (Berakoth, i, 9). It is certain that the book, as it now stands, could not have been formed before the building of the second Temple, for Psalms 126 was evidently composed at that period. In all probability it was formed by Ezra and his contemporaries, about B.C. 450 (Ewald, Poet. Bucher, ii, 205).

But in the arrangement of the book there is manifest proof of its gradual formation out of several smaller collections, each ending with a peculiar formula. The Psalter is divided in the Hebrew into five books (detailed below) and also in the Sept. version, which proves the division to be older than B.C. 200. Some have fancied that this fivefold division did not originally exist, but that it arose simply from a desire to have as many parts in the Psalms as there are in the law of Moses. But strong reasons demand the rejection of such a fancy. Why should this conformity to the Pentateuch be desired and effected in the Psalms, and not also in Proverbs or in the Prophets? The five books bear decided marks, both from tradition and internal evidence, of being not arbitrary divisions, but distinct and independent collections by various hands.

The first book (1-41) consists wholly of David’s songs (see Vriemoet, Nomenclator Davidis ad solos Psalmos pertinet [Rost. 1628), his name being prefixed to all except 1, 2, 10, and 33; nor do we find in it a trace of any but David’s authorship. No such trace exists in the mention of the Temple (5:7), for that word is even in 1Sa 1:9; 1Sa 3:3 applied to the Tabernacle; nor yet in the phrase bringeth back the captivity (14:7), which is elsewhere used, idiomatically, with great latitude of meaning (Job 42:10; Hos 6:11; Ezra 16:53); nor yet in the acrosticism of Psalms 25 etc., for that all acrostic psalms are of late date is a purely gratuitous assumption, and some even of the most sceptical critics admit the Davidic authorship of the partially acrostic Psa 9:10. All the psalms of book 1 being thus Davidic, we may well believe that the compilation of the book was also David’s work. In favor of this is the circumstance that it does not comprise all David’s psalms, nor his latest, which yet would have been all included in it by any subsequent collector; also the circumstance that its two prefatory psalms, although not superscribed, are yet shown by internal evidence to have proceeded from David himself; and furthermore, that of the two recensions of the same hymn (Psalm 14:53), it prefers that which seems to have been more specially adapted by its royal author to the Temple service. Others with less reason assign this division to the time of Hezekiah, who is known to have ordered a collection of Solomon’s proverbs (Pro 25:1), and to have comlmanded the Levites to sing the words of David (2Ch 29:30).

The second book (42-72) consists mainly of pieces by the sons of Korah (42-49), and by David (51-65), which may have been separate minor collections. At the end of this book is found the notice, The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended; and hence some have thought that this was originally the close of a large collection comprising Psalms 1-72 (Carpzov, Introductio, etc., 2, 107). But that the second was originally distinct from the first book is proved by the repetition of one or two pieces; thus Psalms 53 is plainly the same as Psalms 14 with only a notable variation in the divine name, , Elohim, God, being used in the former wherever , Jehovah, Lord, is found in the latter. So also Psalms 70 is but a repetition of Psa 40:13-17, with the same singular variation in the divine name. This division appears by the date of its latest psalm (Psalms 46) to have been compiled in the reign of king Hezekiah. It would naturally comprise, first, several or most of the Levitical psalms anterior to that date, and, secondly, the remainder of the psalms of David previously uncompiled. According to others, this collection was not made till the period of the captivity, on the ground that Psalms 44 refers to the days of Jeremiah.

The third book (73-89) consists chiefly of Asaph’s psalms, but comprises apparently two smaller collections the one Asaphitic (73-83), the other mostly Korahitic (84-89). The collector of this book had no intention to bring together songs written by David, and therefore he put the above notice at the end of the second book (see De Wette, Psalmen, Einleitung, p. 21). This book, the interest of which centres in the times of Hezekiah, stretches out, by its last two psalms, to the reign of Manasseh: it was probably compiled in the reign of Josiah. In the opinion of others, the date of this collection must be as late as the return from Babylon, on the supposition that Psalms 85 implies as much.

The fourth book (90-106), containing the remainder of the psalms up to the date of the captivity; and the fifth (107-150), comprising the psalms of the return, are made up chiefly of anonymous liturgic pieces, many of which were composed for the service of the second Temple. In the last book we have the Songs of Degrees (120-134), which seem to have been originally a separate collection. There is nothing to distinguish these two books from each other in respect of outward decoration or arrangement, and they may have been compiled together in the days of Nehemiah.

The five books may, with some propriety, be thus distinguished: the first Davidic, the second Korahitic, the third Asaphitic, and the two remaining liturgic. (Comp. v, below.)

The ancient Jewish tradition as to this division is preserved to us by the abundant testimonies of the Christian fathers. Of the indications which the sacred text itself contains of this division the most obvious are the doxologies which we find at the end of Psalms 41, 72, 89, 106, and which, having for the most part no special connection with the psalms to which they are attached, mark the several ends of the first four of the five books. It suggests itself at once that these books must have been originally formed at different periods.

This conclusion is by various further considerations rendered all but certain, while the few difficulties which stand in the way of admitting it vanish when closely examined. Thus there is a remarkable difference between the several books in their use of the divine names Jehovah and Elohim to designate Almighty God. In book 1 the former name prevails: it is found 272 times, while Elohim occurs but fifteen times. (We here take no account of the superscriptions or doxology, nor yet of the occurrences of Elohim when inflected with a possessive suffix.) On the other hand, in book 2 Elohimn is found more than five times as often as Jehovah. In book 3 the preponderance of Elohim in the earlier is balanced by that of Jehovah in the later psalms of the book. In book 4 the name Jehovah is exclusively employed; and so also, virtually, in book 5, Elohim being there found only in two passages incorporated from earlier psalms. Those who maintain, therefore, that the psalms were all collected and arranged at once, contend that the collector distributed the Psalms according to the divine names which they severally exhibited. But to this theory the existence of book 3, in which the preferential use of the Elohim gradually yields to that of the Jehovah, is fatal. The large appearance, in fact, of the name Elohim in books 2 and 3 depends in great measure on the period to which many of the psalms of those books belong the period from the reign of Solomon to that of Hezekiah, when through certain causes the name Jehovah was exceptionally disused. The preference for the name Elohim in most of the Davidic psalms which are included in book 2 is closely allied with that character of those psalms which induced David himself to exclude them from his own collection, book 1; while, lastly, the sparing use of the Jehovah in Psalms 68, and the three introductory psalms which precede it, is designed to cause the name, when it occurs, and above all Jah, which is emphatic for Jehovah, to shine out with greater force and splendor.

IV. Superscriptions. All the Psalms, except thirty-four, bear superscriptions. According to some, there are only twenty-five exceptions, as they reckon , hallelujah, a title in all the Psalms which commence with it. To each of these exceptions the Talmud (Babyl. Cod. Aboda Sarah, fol. 24, Colossians 2) gives the name , Orphan Psalm. It is confessedly very difficult, if not impossible, to explain all the terms employed in the inscriptions; and hence critics have differed exceedingly in their conjectures. The difficulty, arising no doubt from ignorance of the Temple music, was felt, it would seem, as early as the age of the Sept.; and it was felt so much by the translators of our A.V. that they generally retained the Hebrew words, even though Luther had set the example of translating them to the best of his ability. It is worth observing that the difficulty appears to have determined Coverdale (1535) to omit nearly all except names of authors; thus in Psalms 60, which is 59 in his version, he gives only a Psalme of David.

The authority of the titles is a matter of doubt. By most of the ancient critics they were considered genuine and of equal authority with the Psalms themselves, while most of the moderns reject them wholly or in part. They were wholly rejected at the close of the 4th century by Theodore of Mopsuestia, one of the ablest and most judicious of ancient interpreters (Rosenmller, Hist. Interpretationis Librorum Sacrorum 3, 256). On the other hand, it deserves to be noticed that they are received by Tholuck and Hengstenberg in their works on the Psalms. Of the antiquity of the inscriptions there can be no question, for they are found in the Sept. They are supposed to be even much older than this version, since they were no longer intelligible to the translator, who often makes no sense of them. Their obscurity might, however, have been owing not so much to their antiquity as to the translator’s residence in Egypt, and consequent ignorance of the psalmody of the Temple service in Jerusalem. At any rate, the appearance of the titles in the Sept. can only prove them to be about as ancient as the days of Ezra. Then it is argued by many that they must be as old as the Psalms themselves, since it is customary for Oriental poets to prefix titles to their songs. Instances are found in Arabic poems, but these are very unlike the Hebrew inscriptions. Much more important traces of the custom appear in Isa 38:9, in Hab 3:1, and in 2Sa 1:17-18 (Tholuck, Psalmen, p. 24). The other instances commonly appealed to in Exo 15:1; Deu 31:30; Jdg 5:1; 2Sa 22:1, furnish no evidence, since they are not proper titles of the songs so much as brief statements connecting them with the narrative. But in 2Sa 23:1 and Num 24:3 there is strong proof of the usage, if, with Tholuck, we take the verses as inscriptions, and not as integral parts of the songs, which most hold them justly to be from their poetical form.

The following considerations seem to militate against the authority of the titles:

(1.) The analogy between them and the subscriptions to the apostolical epistles. The latter are now universally rejected: why not the former?

(2.) The Greek and Syriac versions exhibit them with great and numerous variations, often altering the Hebrew (as in Psalms 27), and sometimes giving a heading where the Hebrew has none (as in Psalms 93-97). Would the ancient translators have taken such liberties, or could such variations have arisen, if the titles had been considered sacred like the Psalms themselves? At any rate, the existence of these glaring variations is sufficient to induce a distrust of the titles in their present form, even though they had been once sanctioned by inspired authority. If ever Ezra settled them, the variations in versions and manuscripts (Eichhorn, Einleitung, iii, 490, 495) have tended since to make them doubtful.

(3.) The inscriptions are occasionally thought to be at variance with the contents of the Psalms. Sometimes the author is believed to be incorrectly given, as when David is named over psalms referring to the captivity, as in Psa 14:7; Psa 25:22; Psa 69:36. It is not unlikely, however, as Tholuck thinks, that these references to the exile were added during that period to the genuine text of the royal singer. Others, as Calvin and Hengstenberg, with far less probability, take these passages in a figurative or spiritual sense. Also Psalms 139, it is supposed, cannot well be David’s, for its style is not free from Chaldaisms. Then sometimes the occasion is incorrectly specified, as in Psalms 30, unless, indeed, this refers to the dedication of the site of the Temple (1Ch 22:1), as Rosenmller, Tholuck, and Hengstenberg think after Venema. The real solution of the controversy lies in the answer to this question: Do they, when individually sifted, approve themselves as so generally correct, and as so free from any single fatal objection to their credit, as to claim our universal confidence? This cannot be fully discussed here, although intimations are given below calculated to confirm the accuracy of the titles as found in the Hebrew and English Bible, especially as to authorship and occasion. We must simply avow our conviction, founded on thorough examination, that they are, when rightly interpreted, fully trustworthy, and that every separate objection that has been made to the correctness of any one of them can be fairly met. Moreover, some of the arguments of their assailants obviously recoil upon themselves. Thus when it is alleged that the contents of Psalms 34 have no connection with the occasion indicated in the superscription, we reply that the fact of the connection not being readily apparent renders it improbable that the superscription should have been prefixed by any but David himself.

Of the terms left untranslated or obscure in our Bible, it may be well to offer some explanation in this place, referring to them in alphabetical order for a fuller elucidation. On this subject most commentators offer instruction, but the reader may especially consult Rosenmller, Scholia in Comp. Redacta, iii, 14-22; De Wette, Commentar uber die Psalmen, p. 27-37; Ewald, Poet. Bucher, i, 169-180, 195. The following summary exhibits the literary and musical systems of notation found in the individual titles to the Psalms at one view, classified under the several terms and particles used to point out their bearing and significance:

I. With the prefix , le- (to or by):

a. The author: namely,

1. David: 3-8, 11-32, 34-41, 51, 53-65, 68-70, 86, 101, 103, 108-110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138-144.

2. Levites:

(1.) Korahites only: 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87.

(2.) Asaph[ites] specially, as a branch of the Korahites: 50, 73-83.

(3.) Heman the [Ezraite, i.e.] Korahite individually: 88.

(4.) Ethan the [Ezraite, i.e.] Korahite individually: 89.

3. Moses: 90.

4. Solomon: 72, 127.

5. General terms:

(1) Man of God, 90:

(2) Jehovah’s servant, 18, 36;

(3) an afflicted one, 102.

b. The person to whom the poem was dedicated, or by whom it was set to music, or under whose direction it was to be rendered:

1. , ham-menatstseach (A.V. the chief musician), the musical precentor of the Temple for the time being: 4-6, 8, 11-14, 18-22, 31, 36, 39-42, 44-47, 49, 51-62, 64-70, 75-77, 80, 84, 85, 88, 109, 139, 140.

2. Jedithian in patrticular: 39.

c. The object or special purpose of the writer:

1. , hazkLr (to remind, A.V. to bring to remembrance), as a memento of some special deliverance, etc.: 38, 70.

2. , lammed (to teach), perhaps to be publicly pronounced memoriter: 60.

3. , annoth (to reply, A.V. Leannoth, q.v.), responsive, perhaps a note of the style of recitation: 88.

4. , todah (confession, A.V. to praise), in acknowledgment, i.e. of God’s mercy: 101.

5. Commemorative of the Sabbath-day: 92.

II. With the prefix , be- (with):

a. To designuate the orchestral accompaniment: only , neginuth (q.v.), or stringed instruments in general: 4, 6, 54, 55, 68, 76.

b. To designate the occasion of composition: 3, 34, 51, 52, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142. The occasion is sometimes otherwise stated: vii, xviii, xxx.

III. With the preposition , al (upon), to denote the musical style of performance, as indicated by:

a. The instrument employed by the leader:

1. , hash-shoshannim (the lilies, i.e. lily-shaped, A.V. Shoshannim, q.v.), straight trumpets: 45, 69 [], 60 [, sing.].

2. , machaleth (the smooth-toned, A.V. Mahalath, q.v.), probably a lute or light stringed instrument: 53, 88.

3. , neginzth, a stringed instrument in general: 61. SEE NEGINOTH.

4. , hag-gittith, the Gittitish, probably a peculiar form of lyre: 8; or perhaps on an eight-stringed lyre. SEE GITTITE

b. The pitch of the singing:

1. , hash-sheninith (the eighth), the octave, i.e. in a tenor voice: 6, 12. SEE SHEMINITH.

2. , alamoth (q.v.), (virgins), in a female key, i.e. soprano 46.

c. After the style of some noted performer: only Juduthun: 62, 77.

d. The tune or melody to be imitated:

1. , muth lab-ben (q.v.) (death to the son), i.e. a ditty so beginning or thus entitled: 9, and end of 48

2. , ayylieth hash-shahar (q.v.), (hind of the dawn), a popular song so called: 22.

3. , yonath elem rechokim (q.v.) (dove of silence of distant ones), an emblematic title of some well-known air: 56.

4. ( omitted on account of the alliteration with ) [or ], al-tashchith [or- chth] (q.v.) (thou mayest not desntroy), the symbolical designation of some familiar measure: 57-59, 75, 81, 84.

IV. With the preposition (el, towards); in imitation of (French a la) some peculiar quality of tone (as we say, the stop of the organ):

1. , han-nechildth (q.v.) (the contracted), the flute or continuous sound: 5.

2. , shoshaznnim (q.v.) (lilies), the trumpet blast: 80.

V. The species of poetical composition:

1. , shir (song), simply an ode or lyrical piece: 46, 48, 65-68, 75, 76, 83, 87, 88, 108. In some of these instances it is joined with the term following. In a certain series it is coupled with the expression , ham-maaloth (the steps, A.V. degrees, q.v.), i.e. climactic in construction of phrases: 120-134. In one case it is joined with the term , yedidoth (i.e. loves), i.e. an epithalamium: 45.

2. , mizmor (playing on an instrument), simply a hymn, to be sung with nmusical accompanimennt: 3-6, 8, 12, 13, 15, 19-24, 29-31, 38-41, 48, 62-68, 73, 75-77, 79, 80, 82-85, 87, 88, 98, 100, 101, 108-110, 139- 141, 143.

3. , miktAm (written, michtam, q.v.), perhaps i.q. a set piece or mottet: 16, 56-60.

4. , tephaillah, a prayer: 17, 86, 90, 102, 142.

5. , tehillah, a psalm’ simply: 145.

6. , maskil (instructive, maschil, q.v.), a didactic poem: 22, 42, 44, 45, 52-55, 74, 78, 88, 89, 142.

7. , edith (precept, eduth, q.v.), an ethical poem: 60, 80.

8., shiggayon (sighing, shiggaion, q.v.), an elegiac or plaintive song: 7.

V. Original Authorship of the Psalms. Many of the ancients, both Jews and Christians, maintained that all the Psalms were written by David, which is one of the most striking proofs of their uncritical judgment. So the Talmudists (Cod. Pesachim, 10:117); Augustine, who is never a good critic (De Civ. Dei, 17:14); and Chrysostom (Prol. ad Psalmos). But Jerome, as might be expected, held the opinion which now universally prevails (Epist. ad Sophronium). The titles and the contents of the Psalms most clearly show that they were composed at different and remote periods by several poets, of whom David was only the largest and most eminent contrib.ltor.

1. David, the sweet psalmist of Israel (2Sa 23:1). To him are ascribed seventy-three psalms in the Hebrew text (not seventy-four, as De Wette and Tholuck state; nor seventy-one, as most others have counted), and at least eleven others in the Sept. namely, 33, 43, 91, 94-99, 104, 137; to which may be added Psalms 10 as it forms part of Psalms 9 in that version.

To these psalms the collector, after properly appending the single psalm of Solomon, has affixed the notice that the prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended (Psa 72:20); evidently implying, at least on the prima facie view, that no more compositions of the royal psalmist remained. How, then, do we find in the later books 3, 4, 5, further psalms yet marked with David’s name? Some have sought to answer this question by a reference to the authorship assigned in the superscriptions of other psalms. If (as we shall presently see) in the times posterior to those of David the Levitical choirs prefixed to the psalms which they composed the names of Asaph, Heman, and Ethan, out of a feeling of veneration for their memories, howv much more might the name of David be prefixed to the utterances of those who were not merely his descendants, but also the representatives for the time being, and so in some sort the pledges of the perpetual royalty of his lineage! The name David is used to denote, in other parts of Scripture, after the original David’s death, the then head of the Davidic family; and so, in prophecy, the Messiah of the seed of David, who was to sit on David’s throne (1Ki 12:16; Hos 3:5; Isa 55:3; Jer 30:9; Ezra 34:23, 24). Thus some seek to explain the meaning of the later Davidic superscriptions in the Psalter. The psalms to which they belong are thought to have been written by Hezekiah, by Josiah, by Zerubbabel, or others of David’s posterity.

This view is supposed to be confirmed by various considerations. In the later books, and even in book v taken alone, the psalms marked with David’s name are not grouped all together. In some instances there is internal evidence of occasion: thus Psalms 101 can ill be reconciled with the historical circumstances of any period of David’s life, but suits exactly with those of the opening of the reign of Josiah. Some of these psalms Psalms 86, 108, 144 are compacted of passages from previous psalms of David. Lastly, the Hebrew text of many (see, above all, Psalms 139) is marked by grammatical Chaldaisms, which are entirely unparalleled in Psalms 1-72, and which thus afford strong evidence of a comparatively recent date. They cannot, therefore, it is claimed, be David’s own; yet it is held that the superscriptions are not on that account to be rejected as false, but must rather be properly interpreted, on the ground of the improbability that any would, carelessly or presumptuously, have prefixed David’s name to various psalms scattered through a collection, while yet leaving the rest at least in books 4, 5, altogether unsuperscribed. Ingenious as is this explanation, we prefer to adhere to the simple and obvious meaning of the titles as ascribing the psalms in question to David himself, and we do not feel constrained to seek other authors by the nature of the contents.

When we consider David’s eminence as a poet, and the delight he took in sacred song, we cannot wonder that he should be the author of so many of the Psalms no fewer, in all likelihood, than half the collection: the wonder rather should be that we do not find more of his fine odes, for it is certain he wrote some which are not in this book; see in 2Sa 1:19-27 his lament over Saul and Jonathan, and in 23:1-7 his last inspired effusion. His character and merit as the father of Hebrew melody and music for it was in his hands and under his auspices that these flourished most are thus set forth by the son of Sirach (47:8-10), In all his work he gave thanks. To the Holy and Most High he sang songs with all his heart in words of praise ( ), and he loved his Maker. He set singers also before the altar, and from their music () sweet melody resounded. He gave splendor to the feasts, and adorned the solemn times unto perfection ( ), in that they praised his holy name, and the sanctuary pealed with music from early morn.

David’s compositions are generally distinguished by sweetness, softness, and grace, but sometimes, as in Psalms 18 they exhibit the sublime. His prevailing strain is plaintive, owing to his multiplied and sore trials, both before and after his occupation of the throne. How often was he beset with dangers, harassed by foes, and chastised of God! Under these circumstances, how was his spirit bowed down, and gave vent to its plaints and sorrows on the saddened chords of the lyre! But in the midst of all he generally found relief, and his sorrow gave place to calm confidence and joy in God. What wonder that a soul so susceptible and devout as his should manifest emotions so strong, so changeful, and so various, seeing that he passed through the greatest vicissitudes of life? God took him from the sheepfolds to feed Jacob his people and Israel his inheritance (Psa 78:70-71). See Herder, Geist der ebr. Poesie, ii, 297-301; and especially Tholuck (Psalmen, Einleitung, 3), who gives a most admirable exhibition of the psalmist’s history and services. SEE DAVID. The example and countenance of the king naturally led others to cultivate poetry and music. It appears from Amo 6:5 that lovers of pleasure took David’s compositions as a model for their worldly songs: how much more would the lovers of piety be induced to follow him by producing sacred songs and hymns! The fine psalm in Habakkuk 3 is an exact imitation of his style as seen in Psalms 18. The celebrated singers of his day were men, like himself, moved by the divine afflatus not only to excel in music, but also to indite hallowed poetry. Of these psalmists the names of several are preserved in the titles.

2. Asaph is named as the author of twelve psalms viz. 50, 73-83. He was one of David’s chief musicians. All the poems bearing his name cannot be his, for in Psalms 74, 79, , 80 there are manifest allusions to very late events in the history of Israel. Either, then, the titles of these three psalms must he wholly rejected, or the name must be here taken for the sons of Asaph; which is not improbable, as the family continued for many generations in the choral service of the Temple. Asaph appears from Psalms 50, 73, 78 to have been the greatest master of didactic poetry, excelling alike in sentiment and in diction. No critic whatever contends that all these eleven belong to the age of David, and, in real truth, internal evidence is in every single instance in favor of a later origin. They were composed, then, by the sons of Asaph (2Ch 29:13; 2Ch 25:15, etc.), the members, by hereditary descent, of the choir which Asaph founded. It was to be expected that these psalmists would, in superscribing their psalms, prefer honoring and perpetuating the memory of their ancestor to obtruding their own personal names on the Church a consideration which both explains the present superscriptions and also renders it improbable that the person intended in them could, according to a frequent but now waning hypothesis, be any second Asaph of younger generation and of inferior fame. SEE ASAPH.

3. The sons of Korah were another family of choristers, to whom eleven of the most beautiful psalms are ascribed. The authorship is assigned to the Korahites in general, not because many of them could have been engaged in composing one and the same song, but because the name of the particular writer was unknown or omitted. SEE KORAH. However, in Psalms 88 we find, besides the family designation, the name of the individual who wrote it viz.:

4. Heman was another of David’s chief singers (1Ch 15:19): he is called the Ezraite, as being descended from some Ezra, who appears to have been a descendant of Korah; at least Heman is reckoned a Kohathite (1Ch 6:33-38), and was therefore, probably a Korahite, for the Kohathites were continued and counted in the line of Korah; see 1Ch 6:22; 1Ch 6:37-38. Thus Heman was both an Ezraite and of the sons of Korah. That Psalms 88 was written by him is not unlikely, though many question it, regarding this term likewise as a mere patronymic. SEE HEMAN

5. Ethan is reputed the author of Psalms 89. He also is called the Ezraite, but this is either a mistake, or he as well as Heman had an ancestor named Ezra, of whom nothing is known. The Ethan intended in the title is doubtless the Levite of Merari’s family whom David made chief musician along with Asaph and Heman (1Ch 6:44; 1Ch 25:1; 1Ch 25:6). SEE ETHAN.

6. Solomon is given as the author of Psalms 72, 127, and there is no decided internal evidence to the contrary, though most consider him to be the subject, and not the author, of Psalms 72. SEE SOLOMON.

7. Moses is reputed the writer of Psalms 90, and there is no strong reason to doubt the tradition; but the Talmudists, whom Origen, and even Jerome, follow, ascribe to him also the ten succeeding psalms (91-100), on the principle that the anonymous productions belonged to the last-named author. This principle is manifestly false, since in several of these psalms we find evidence that Moses was not the author. In Psalms 95 the forty years’ wandering in the wilderness is referred to as past; in Psa 97:8 mention is made of Zion and Judah, which proves that it cannot be dated earlier than the time of David; and in Psa 99:6 the prophet Samuel is named, which also proves that Moses could not be the writer. SEE MOSES

Jeduthun is sometimes, without just ground, held to be named as the author of Psalms 39; the ascription there being merely a dedication to the leader of the Levitical orchestra. In the view of others, this, like the superscriptions of Psalms 88, 89, Maschil of Heman, Maschil of Ethan, have simply a conventional purport the one psalm having been written, as, in fact, the rest of its superscription states, by the sons of Korah, the choir of which Heman was the founder; and the other correspondingly proceeding from the third Levitical choir, which owed its origin to Ethan or Jeduthun. SEE JEDUTHUN.

Many conjectures have been formed respecting other writers, especially of the anonymous psalms. The Sept. seemingly gives, as authors, Jeremiah (Psalms 137), and Haggai and Zechariah (Psalms 138). But these conjectures are too uncertain to call for further notice in this place. Hitzig (Comment. uber die Psalmen) ascribes to Jeremiah a large number of the elegiac or plaintive psalms.

More particularly, the Psalms may be arranged, according to the intimations of authorship contained in the titles, as follows:

A. Exclusively Davidic.. . ……… 1-41.

(Only Psalms 1, 2, 10, 33 are somewhat doubtful.)

B. Exclusively Levitical

a. Korahites …………….42-49

b. Asaph . ……. 50

C. Chiefly Davidic

a. David .. ……………….51-64 .

b. Uncertain ……… ……. 65-67.

c. David ………. …. 68-70.

d. Uncertain …. ……. 71.

e. David (for Solomon) ……… .. 72.

D. Chiefly Levitical

a. Asaph. ……………. 23 83.

b. Korahites. …. …………. 84-85.

c. David . .. …….. 86.

d. Korahites and Heman. …. 87, 88.

e. Ethan …………………. 89.

f. Moses ………… .. …..90.

g. Uncertain ………………. 91-100.

h. David …………………. .101.

i. Uncertain …………………101.

j. David … …… ………….103.

k. Uncertain …………………104-107.

l. David ………………… ..108-110.

m. Uncertain .. … ………. . … 111-119.

E. Degrees

a. Uncertain ….. ………… 120-121.

b. David ……….. 122.

c. Uncertain ……….. …123.

d. David ………………. .. .124.

e. Uncertain …. …. ……. 125, 126.

f. Solomon ………. …. ….127.

g. Uncertain ……………. 128-130.

h. David .. ………….131.

i. Uncertain …………………132.

j. David …………. …… 133.

k. Uncertain ………………. 134.

F. Miscellaneous

a. Uncertain …………………. 135-137.

b. David . … ………….. . 138-145.

c. Uncertain. …. ……………. 146-159.

VI. Dates and Occasions of the Psalms. The dates of the Psalms, as must be obvious from what has been stated respecting the authors, are very various, ranging from the time of Moses to that of the captivity a period of nearly 1000 years. In the time of king Jehoshaphat (about B.C. 896) Psalms 83, setting forth the dangers of the nation, as we read in 2Ch 20:1-25, was composed either by himself, as some suppose, or most likely, according to the title, by Jahaziel, a Levite of the sons of Asaph, who was then an inspired teacher (see 2Ch 20:14). In the days of Hezekiah, who was himself a poet (Isa 38:9-20), we may date, with great probability, the Korahitic Psalms 46, 48, which seem to celebrate the deliverance from Sennacherib (2Ki 19:35). In the period of the captivity were evidently written such laments as Psalms 44, 79, 102, , 137; and after its close, when the captives returned, we must manifestly date Psalms 85, 126.

Some have maintained that several psalms, especially 74, were written even in the days of the Maccabees; but this is contrary to every probability, for, accorlding to all accounts, the Canon had been closed before that time. SEE CANON.

Moreover, the hypothesis of a Maccabaean authorship of any portion of the Psalter can ill be reconciled with the history of the translation of the Septuagint. But the difficulties do not end here. How for we shall not here discuss the theories of Hitzig and his followers Lengerke and Justus Olshausen, who would represent the greater part of the Psalter as Maccabean how is it that the psalms which one would most naturally assign to the Maccabaean period meet us not in the close, but in the middle (i.e. in the second and third books) of the Psalter? The three named by De Wette (Einl. in das A. T. 270) as bearing apparently a Maccabaean impress are Psalms 44, 60, 74; and, in fact, these, together with Psalms 79, are perhaps all that would, when taken alone, seriously suggest the hypothesis of a Maccabaean date. Whence, then, arise the early places in the Psalter which these occupy? But even in the case of these the internal evidence, when more narrowly examined, proves to be in favor of an earlier date. In the first place, the superscription of Psalms 60 cannot possibly have been invented from the historical books, inasmuch as it disagrees with them in its details. Then the mention by name in that psalm of the Israelitish tribes, and of Moab and Philistia, is unsuited to the Maccabaean epoch. In Psalms 44 the complaint is made that the tree of the nation of Israel was no longer spreading over the territory that God had assigned it. Is it conceivable that a Maccabeean psalmist should have held this language without making the slightest allusion to the Babylonian captivity, as if the tree’s growth were now first seriously impeded by the wild stocks around, notwithstanding that it had once been entirely transplanted, and that, though restored to its place, it had been weakly ever since? In Psalms 74 it is complained that there is no more any prophet. Would that be a natural complaint at a time when Jewish prophecy had ceased for more than two centuries? Lastly, in Psalms 79, the mention of kingdoms in Psa 79:6 ill suits the Maccabaean time; while the way in which the psalm is cited by the author of the first book of Maccabees (1Ma 7:16-17), who omits those words which are foreign to his purpose, is such as would have hardly been adopted in reference to a contemporary composition.

The superscriptions, and the places which the psalms themselves severally occupy in the Psalter. are thus the two guiding clews by which, in conjunction with the internal evidence, their various occasions are to be determined. In the critical results obtained on these points by those scholars who have recognised and used these helps there is, not indeed uniformity, but at least a visible tendency towards it. The same cannot be said for the results of the judgments of those, of whatever school, who have neglected or rejected them; nor, indeed, is it easily to be imagined that internal evidence alone should suffice to assign 150 devotional hymns, even approximately, to their several epochs. The table on the following pages exhibits all that can with probability be ascertained on this head as to each psalm.

VII. Canonicity and Use. The inspiration and canonical authority of the Psalms are established by the most abundant and convincing evidence. They never were, and never can be, rejected, except by impious impugners of all divine revelation. Not to mention other ancient testimonies, SEE CANON, we find complete evidence in the N.T., where the book is quoted or referred to as divine by Christ and his apostles at least seventy times. No other writing is so frequently cited, Isaiah, the next in the scale of quotation, being cited only about fifty-five times. Twice (Luk 20:42 and Act 1:20) we find distinct mention of the Book of Psalms ( ). Once, however (Luk 24:44), the name Psalms is used, not simply for this book, but for the Hagiographa, or the whole of the third division of the Hebrew Scriptures, SEE HAGIOGRAPHA, because in it the Psalms are the first and chief part, or possibly, as Havernick suggests (Einleitung, 14 p. 78), because the division consists mainly of poetry. It deserves notice that in Heb 4:7, where the quotation is taken from the anonymous Psalms 95, the book is indicated by David, most likely because he was the largest and most eminent contributor, and also the patron and model of the other psalmists. For the same reasons many ancient and modern authors often speak of the book as the Psalms of David (Carpzov, Introd. ii, 98), without intending to ascribe all the productions to him.

In every age of the Church, the Psalms have been extolled for their excellence and their use for godly edifying (Carpzov, l.c. p. 109116). Indeed, if Paul’s estimate of ancient inspired Scripture (2Ti 3:15-17) can be justly applied to any single book, that book must be the Psalms. Even in the N.T. there is scarcely a work of equal practical utility. Basil the Great and Chrysostom, in their homilies (see Suiceri Thes. Eccles. s.v. ), expatiate most eloquently, and yet judiciously, on its excellence. The close of Basil’s eulogy is to this effect: In it is found a perfect theology ( ): prophecy ofChrist’s sojourn in the flesh, threatening of judgment, hope of resurrection, fear of retribution, promises of glory, revelations of mysteries all things are treasured in the book of Psalms, as in some great and common storehouse. Among the early Christians it was customary to learn the book by heart, that psalmody might enliven their social hours, and soften the fatigues and soothe the sorrows of life. They employed the Psalms, not only in their religious assemblies, of which use we find probable mention in 1Co 14:26. but also at their meals and before retiring to rest, as Clement of Alexandria testifies: , . Of their use at meals we find an example also in the institution of the Lord’s Supper (Mat 26:30). For their modern liturgical use, SEE PSALMODY; SEE PSALTER.

VIII. Classification. Various classifications of the Psalms have been proposed (Carpzov, Introd. ii, 132-134). Tholuck would divide them, according to the matter, into songs of praise, of thanksgiving, of complaint, and of instruction. De Wette suggests another method of sorting them (Einleitung, p. 3), somewhat as below. It is obvious, however, that no very accurate classification can be made, since many are of diversified contents and uncertain tenor. The following distribution will, perhaps, best comprise them in their general import.

1. Hymns in praise of Jehovah tehillim, in the proper sense. These are directed to Jehovah, from various motives and views, e.g. as the Creator of the universe and Lord of all (Psalms 8, 19, 65, 93, 104, 145, 147); as the Protector and Helper of Israel (Psalms 20, 29, 33, 46, 47, 48, 66, 67, 75, 76, 135, 136); or as the Helper of individuals, with thanksgiving for deliverance (Psalms 18, 30, 34, 40, 138); while others refer to them or especial attributes of Jehovah (Psalms 90, 139). These psalms contain the most sublime thoughts respecting God, nature, the government of the world, etc.; they also furnish the sources of many doctrinal ideas.

2. Temple hymns, sung at the consecration of the Temple, the entrance of the ark, or intended for the Temple service (Psalms 15, 24, l68, 81, 87, 132, 134, 135). So also pilgrim songs, sung by those who came to worship at the temple, etc. SEE DEGREES.

3. Religious and moral psalms of a general character, containing the poetical expression of emotions and feelings, and therefore subjective, e.g. confidence in God (Psalms 23, 42, 43, 62, 91, 121, 125, 127, 128); longing for the worship of the sanctuary (Psalms 42, 43); and prayers for the forgiveness of sin (Psalms 51). So, also, didactic songs relating to religion, or the expression of some truth or maxim (Psalms 1, 15, 32, 34, 50, 128, 133). This is a numerous class.

4. Elegiac psalms, containing complaints under affliction and the persecution of enemies, and prayers for succor. This class, which comprises more than a third of the whole collection, has several subdivisions:

(1.) The lamentations or complaints of particular individuals (Psalms 7, 17, 22, 51, 52, 55, 56, 109).

(2.) National lamentations, mostly in a religious point of view (Psalms 44, 74, 79, 80, 137). Some are both individual and national lamentations (Psalms 59, 77, 102). Most of these psalms are of a late date.

(3.) General psalms of complaint, reflections on the wickedness of the world (Psalms 10, 12, 14, 36). Didactic psalms, respecting the goodness of God, the condition of the pious and of the godless (Psalms 37, 49, 63, 73).

5. Psalms relating to the king, patriotic hymns, etc. (Psalms 20, 21, 45, 110).

6. National psalms, containing allusions to the anlcient history of the Hebrews and of the relation of the people to Jehovah (Psalms 78, 105, 106, 114).

The Messianic psalms ought properly to constitute another separate class (Psalms 2, 16, 22, 40, 72, 110). Many of the prophetic psalms are distributed among the other classes, while the few which cannot be brought under any of the above classes and divisions either constitute new ones by themselves or possess an intermediate character.

IX. Literary Features. The book has been styled by some moderns the anthology of Hebrew lyric poetry, as if it consisted of a selection of the most admired productions of the sacred muse; but the name is not altogether appropriate, since several pieces of the highest poetic merit are, to our knowledge, not included namely, the songs of Moses, in Exodus 15 and Deuteronomy 32; the song of Deborah, in Judges 5; the prayer of Hannah, in 1Sa 2:1-10; and even David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan, in 2Sa 1:18-27. To these may be added the song of Hezekiah, in Isa 38:9-20, and the prayers of Habakkuk, in Habakkuk 3, and Jonah, in Jonah 2. The truth seems to be, as Ewald and Tholuck maintain, that the collection was made not so much with reference to the beauty of the pieces as to their adaptation for devotional use in public worship. This view sufficiently accounts for omitting most of the above pieces and many others as being either too individual or too secular in their application. It may account for not including the lament over Jonathan, and for the fact that only two of Solomon’s compositions (Psalms 72, 127) are professedly given, though his songs were a thousand and five (1Ki 4:32-33). His themes were secular, and therefore not suitable for this collection.

All the best judges, as Lowth, Herder, De Wette, Ewald, Tholuck, and others, pronounce the poetry of the Psalms to be of the lyric order; They are, says De Wette (Einleitung in die Psalmen, p. 2), lyric in the proper sense; for among the Hebrews. as among the ancients generally, poetry, singing, and music were united, and the inscriptions to most of the Psalms determine their connection with music, though in a way not always intelligible to us. Also, as works of taste, these compositions deserve to be called lyric. The essence of lyric poetry is the immediate expression of feeling, and feeling is the sphere in which most of the Psalms move. Pain, grief, fear, hope, joy, trust, gratitude, submission to God everything that moves and elevates the heart is expressed in these songs. Most of them are the lively effusions of the excited, susceptible heart, the fresh offspring of inspiration and elevation of thought; while only a few are spiritless imitations and compilations, or iunpoetic forms of prayer, temple hymns, and collections of proverbs. For fuller information on this subject, SEE POETRY.

X. Prophetic and Messianic Significance. The moral struggle between godliness and ungodliness, so vividly depicted in the Psalms, culminates, in Holy Scripture, in the life of the Incarnate Son of God upon earth. It only remains to show that the Psalms themselves definitely anticipated this culmination. Now, there are in the Psalter at least three psalms of which the interest evidently centres in a person distinct from the speaker, and which, since they cannot, without violence to the language, be interpreted of any but the Messiah, may be termed directly and exclusively Messianic. We refer to Psalms 2:45, 110, to which may, perhaps, be added Psalms 72. It would be strange if these few psalms stood. in their prophetical significance, absolutely alone among the rest; the more so inasmuch as Psalm ii forms part of the preface to the first book of the Psalter, and would, as such, be entirely out of place, did not its general theme virtually extend itself over those that follow, in which the interest generally centres in the figure of the suppliant or worshipper himself. Hence the impossibility of viewing the psalms generally, notwithstanding the historical drapery in which they are outwardly clothed, as simply the past devotions of the historical David or the historical Israel. Other arguments to the same effect are furnished by the idealized representations which many of them present: by the outward points of contact between their language and the actual earthly career of our Saviour; by the frequent references made to them both by our Saviour himself and by the Evangelists; and by the view taken of them by the Jews, as evinced in several passages of the Targum.

There is yet another circumstance well worthy of note in its bearing upon this subject. Alike in the earlier and in the later portions of the Psalter, all those psalms which are of a personal rather than of a national character are marked in the superscriptions with the name of David. It results from this that, while the Davidic psalms are partly personal, partly national, the Levitical psalms are uniformly national. Exceptions to this rule exist only in appearance: thus Psalms 73, although couched in the first person singular, is really a prayer of the Jewish faithful against the Assyrian invaders; and in Psalms 42, 43, it is the feelings of an exiled company rather than of a single individual to which utterance is given. It thus follows that it was only those psalmists who were types of Christ by external office and lineage as well as by inward piety that were charged by the Holy Spirit to set forth beforehand, in Christ’s own name and person. the sufferings that awaited him and the glory that should follow. The national hymns of Israel are, indeed, also prospective; but in general they anticipate rather the struggles and the triumphs of the Christian Church than those of Christ himself.

We annex a list of the chief passages in the Psalms which are in anywise quoted or embodied in the N.T., showing more or less clearly this anticipative character: Psa 2:1-2; Psa 2:7-9; Psa 4:4; Psa 5:9; Psa 6:3; Psa 6:8; Psa 8:2; Psa 8:4-6; Psa 10:7; Psa 14:1-3; Psa 16:8-11; Psa 18:4; Psa 18:49; Psa 19:4; Psa 22:1; Psa 22:8; Psa 22:18; Psa 22:22; Psa 23:6; Psa 24:1; Psa 31:5; Psa 32:1-2; Psa 34:8; Psa 34:12-16; Psa 34:20; Psa 35:9; Psa 36:1; Psa 37:11; Psa 40:6-8; Psa 41:9; Psa 44:22; Psa 45:6-7; Psa 48:2; Psa 51:4; Psa 55:22; Psa 68:18; Psa 68:4; Psa 68:9; Psa 68:22-23; Psa 68:25; Psa 75:8; Psa 78:2; Psa 78:24; Psa 82:6; Psa 86:9; Psa 89:20; Psa 90:4; Psa 91:11-12; Psa 92:7; Psa 94:11; Psa 95:7-11; Psa 102:25-27; Psa 104:4; Psa 109:8; Psa 110:1; Psa 110:4; Psa 112:9; Psa 116:10; Psa 117:1; Psa 118:6; Psa 118:22-23; Psa 118:25-26; Psa 140:3. SEE QUOTATIONS.

XI. Moral Characteristics of the Psalms. The great doctrines and precepts embodied in the Psalms what views they give of God and his government, of man and his sinfulness, of piety and morals, of a future state, and of the Messiah are most ably set forth by Tholuck in his Einleitung, 4.

Foremost among these meets us, undoubtedly, the universal recourse to communion with God. My voice is unto God, and I will cry (Psa 72:1), might well stand as a motto to the whole of the Psalter; for, whether immersed in the depths, or blessed with greatness and comfort on every side, it is to God that the psalmist’s voice seems ever to soar spontaneously aloft. Alike in the welcome of present deliverance or in the contemplation of past mercies, he addresses himself straight to God as the object of his praise. Alike in the persecutions of his enemies and in the desertions of his friends, in wretchedness of body and in the agonies of inward repentance, in the moment of impending danger and in the hour of apparent despair, it is direct to God that he utters forth his supplications. Despair, we say; for such, as far as the description goes, is the psalmist’s state in Psalms 88. But meanwhile he is praying: the apparent impossibility of deliverance cannot restrain his Godward voice; and so the very force of communion with God carries him, almost unawares to himself, through the trial.

Connected with this is the faith by which he every.where lives in God rather than in himself. God’s mercies, God’s greatness, form the sphere in which his thoughts are ever moving. Even when, through excess of affliction, reason is rendered powerless, the naked contemplation of God’s wonders of old forms his effectual support (Psalms 77).

It is of the essence of such faith that the psalmist’s view of the perfections of God should be true and vivid. The Psalter describes God as he is; it glows with testimonies to his power and providence, his love and faithfulness, his holiness and righteousness. Correspondingly it testifies against every form of idol which men would substitute in the living God’s place, whether it be the outward image, the work of men’s hands (Psalms 115), or whether it be the inward vanity of earthly comfort or prosperity, to be purchased at the cost of the honor which cometh from God alone (Psalms 4). The solemn See that there is no idol-way () in me of Psalms 139 the striving of the heart after the very truth, and naught besides is the exact anticipation of the Little children, keep yourselves from idols of the loved apostle in the N.T.

The Psalms not only set forth the perfections of God; they proclaim also the duty of worshipping him by the acknowledgment and adoration of his perfections. They encourage all outward rites and means of worship: new songs, use of musical instruments of all kinds, appearance in God’s courts, lifting-up of hands, prostration at his footstool, holy apparel (A.V. beauty of holiness). Among these they recognise the ordinance of sacrifice (Psalms 4, 5, 27, 51) as an expression of the worshipper’s consecration of himself to God’s service. But not the less do they repudiate the outward rite when separated from that which it was designed to express (Psalms 40, 69): a broken and contrite heart is, from erring man, the genuine sacrifice which God requires (Psalms 51).

Similar depth is observable in the view taken by the psalmists of human sin. It is to be traced lnot only in its outward manitestations, but also in the inward workings of the heart (Psalms 36), and is to be primarily ascribed to man’s innate corruption (Psalms 51, 58). It shows itself alike in deeds, in words (Psalms 17, 141), and in thoughts (Psalms 139); nor is even the believer able to discern all its various ramifications (Psalms 19). Colnnected with this view of sin is, on the one hand, the picture of the utter corruption of the ungodly world (Psalms 14); on the other, the encouragement to genuine repentance, the assurance of divine forgiveness (Psalms 32), and the trust in God as the source of complete redemption (Psalms 130).

With regard to the law, the psalmist, while warmly acknowledging its excellence, feels yet that it cannot so effectually guide his own unassisted exertions as to preserve him from error (Psalms 19). He needs an additional grace from above, the grace of God’s Holy Spirit (Psalms 51). But God’s Spirit is also a free spirit (ibid.); led by this, he will discern the law, with all its precepts, to be no arbitrary rule of bondage, but rather a charter and instrument of liberty (Psalms 119).

The Psalms bear repeated testimony to the duty of instructing others in the ways of holiness (Psalms 32, 34, 51). They also indirectly enforce the duty of love, even to our enemies (Psa 7:4; Psa 35:13; Psa 109:4). On the other hand, they denounce, in the strongest terms, the judgments of God on transgressors. We here particularly notice what are called the vindictive psalms namely, those which contain expressions of wrath and imprecations against the enemies of God and his people, such as Psalms 59, 69, 79, and which, in consequence, are apt to shock the feelings of some Christian readers. In order to obviate this offence, most of our pious commentators insist that the expressions are not maledictions or imprecations, but simple declarations of what will or may take place. But this is utterly inadmissible; for in several of the most startling passages the language in the original is plainly imperative. and not indicative (see Psa 59:14; Psa 69:25; Psa 69:28; Psa 79:6). The truth is that only a morbid benevolence, a mistaken philanthropy, takes offence at these psalms; for in reality they are not opposed to the spirit of the Gospel, or to that love of enemies which Christ enjoined. Resentment against evil-doers is so far from being sinful that we find it exemplified in the meek and spotless Redeemer himself (see Mar 3:5). If the emotion and its utterance were essentially sinful, how could Paul (1Co 16:22) wish the enemy of Christ to be accursed (), or say of his own enemy, Alexander the coppersmith, The Lord reward him according to his works (2Ti 4:14); and, especially, how could the spirits of the just in heaven call on God for vengeance? (Rev 6:10.) See a good article on this subject (The Imprecations in the Scriptures) in the American Bibliotheca Sacra for February, 1844. Such imprecations in the Psalms, however, are usually levelled at transgressors as a body, and are uniformly uttered on the hypothesis of their wilful persistence in evil, in which case the overthrow of the sinner becomes a necessary part of the uprooting of sin. They are in nowise inconsistent with any efforts to lead sinners, individually, to repentance. SEE IMPRECATION.

This brings us to notice the faith of the psalmists in a righteous recompense to all men according to their deeds (Psalms 37 :etc.). They generally expected that men would receive such recompense, in great measure, during their own lifetime. Yet they felt withal that it was not then complete; it perpetuated itself to their children (Psa 37:25; Psa 109:12, etc.); and thus we find set forth in the Psalms, with sufficient distinctness, though in an unmatured, and consequently imperfect, form, the doctrine of a retribution after death.

XII. Commentaries. The following are the special exegetical helps on the whole book; we designate a few of the most important by an asterisk, and we omit many that are merely practical, homiletical, and liturgical: Origen, Selecta (in Opp. ii, 510); also Scholia (in Galland’s Bibl. Patr. vol. xiv); Eusebius, Commentarii (Gr. and Lat. in Montfaucon’s Collectio Nova, vol. i); Athanasius, Expositiones; also Interpretatio, etc. (all in Opp. vol. i and iii); Apollinarius, Metaphrasis (Lat. and Gr. in Galland, v, 359); Gregory Nyssen. Inscriptiones (in Opp. i, 257); Jerome, Emendatio and De Virtute (in Opp. [Suppos.], vol. xi); also Breviarium [spurious] (ibid. append.); Augustine, Narrationes (in Opp.; transl. Expositions, Oxf. 1847, 6 vols. 8vo); Hilarius, Comnmenttarii (in Opp. vol. i); Chrysostom, Expositio (in Opp. vol. v); Theodoret, Commentarii (Gr. and Lat. Padua, 1565, 4to; Halle, 1768, 8vo; also in Opp. vol. ii); Gregory Turonensis, Commentarii (in Opp. p. 1257); Arnobius, Commentarium (in Bibl. Max. Patr. vol. viii); Cassiodorus, Expositio (in Opp. vol. ii); Isidore, Prologus (in Mai’s Script. Vet. vol. iii); Albert, Commentarii (in Opp. vol. vii); Bede, Comnmentariat (in Opp o. ol. iii); Remigius, Enarratio (in Bibl. Max. Patr. vol. xvi); Bruno Herbip. Expositio (ibid. vol. 18); Bruno Astensis, Psalterium (in Opp. vol. i); Rupert, In Psalmos (in Opp. vol. i); Euthymius Zigabenus, Commentarii (Gr. and Lat. in Bibl. Max. Patr. vol. xix; also Gr. Ven. 1530, fol.; Lat. Verona, 1530, fol.; Par. 1545, 4to; 1560, 8vo); Hugo h St. Vict. Annotationes (in Opp. vol. i); Gerhohus, Commentarius (in Pez, Thesaur. vol. v); Oddo, Expositio (in Bibl. Max. Patr. vol. xx); Bonaventura, Expositio (in Opp. vol. i); Kimchi, (first published separately, s. 1.1477, 4to, and often later in various forms; Lat. ed. Janvier, Par. 1666, 4to; in English by M’Caul, Lond. 1850. 12mo); Turrecremata, Expositio (Rom. 1470, 4to, and later in various forms); Parez [Rom. Cath.], Commnentarius (Valenc. 1493, fol., and often later elsewhere); Pelbart [Rom. Cath.], Commentarius (Hag. 1504, 1513, fol.); Ludolphus, Expositio (Par. 1506, fol.); Felix Pratensis, Nota (Ven. 1515, 8vo; Hag. 1522, 4to; Basil. 1526, 16mo); Arnobius, Commentarius (Roterd. 1522, 4to); Bugenhagen, Annotationes (Argent. 1524, 4to, and often later elsewhere in various forms); Ayguanus [Rom. Cath.], Commentariac (Complut. 1524, 2 vols. fol., and often later in various forms); Cajetan [Rom. Cath.], Enarratin (Ven. 1525; Par. 1532, 1540, tol.); Bucer, Commentarii (Argent. 1526, fol., and often; also in French, Geneva, 1553, 8vo); Titelmann [Rom. Cath.], Elucidationes (Antw. 1531, fol., and often later and elsewhere in various forms); Campensis [Rom. Cath.}, Interpretatio [with Ecclesiastes] (Par. 1534, 4to, and often later in various forms and at various places; also in French and English); Parmensis [Rom. Cath.], Intenpretatio (Ven. 1537,1559, 4to); Flaminius, Explanatio (Ven. 1545, fol.; ed. Wald, Hal. 1785, 8vo); Athias, [from Rashi, Kimchi. etc.] (Ven. 1549, fol.); Foleng [Rom. Cath.], Commentaria (Basil. 1549, 1557; Rom. 1585; Colon. 1594, fol.); Musculus, Commentarius (Basil. 1550, and often, fol.); AEpinus, Enarrationes (Francf. 1555-56, 2 vols. 8vo); *Calvin, Commenturius (Genev. 1557 and often, fol.; also in French, ibid. 1561 and often, fol.; in English, Lond. 1571, 2 vols. 4to; Oxf. 1840, 3 vols. 8vo; Edinb. 1845-49, 5 vols. 8vo); Vairlenius [Rom. Cath.], Commentarius (Lov. 1557, 3 vols. fol.); Marloratus, Expositio (Par. 1562 and often, fol.); Draconis, Psalterium (Vitemb. 1563, fol.); Forerius [Rom. Cath.], Commentariuts (Ven. 1563, fol.); Strigel, Hyponemata (Lips. 1563, fol. and 8vo; Neost. 1574, 8vo); Selnecker, Auslegqunq (Norib. 1566 and often, fol.); Del Pozo [Rom. Cath.], Elucidationes (Complut. 1567, fol.); Shoeib, (Salonica, 1569, 4to); Jansen [Rom. Cath.], Paraphrasis (Lov. 1569, 4to; Lugd. 1577, 1586, fol.); Jaabez, (Salonica, 1571, 4to); Moller, Commentarius (Viteb. 1573, 8vo, and often in various forms); Genebrard [Rom. Cath.], Commentarii (Par. 1577, 8vo; and often later and elsewhere in various forms); Heshnsius, Commentarius (Helmst. 1586, fol.); Arama, (Ven. 1590, 4to; Germ. ed. by Bathysen, Hanau, 1712, 12mo); Fischer, Auslegung (Ulz. 1590; Leips. 1601, fol.); Mencel, Auslegung (Leips. 1594, 1605, fol.); Palanther [Rom. Cath.], Commentarius (Brix. 1600; Ven. 1617, 4to); Dosma [Rom. Cath.], Expositio [includ. Cant.] (Madr. 1601, 4to); Nicholson, Analysis LEngl.] (Lond. 1602, fol.); Alscheich, (Ven. 1605, 4to; Amst. 1695, 4to; Jesnitz, 1721, fol.; Zolkiew. 1764, fol.); Gesner, Commentationes (Viternh. 1605, 1609, 1629, 1665. fol.); Agelli [Rom. Cath.], Commentarius (Rom. 1606; Colon. 1607; Par. 1611 f; l.) Bellarmine [Rom. Cath.], Explanatio (Rom. 1611, 4t,. and often later elsewhere); Achselrad, (Hanau, 1616, 4to); Witweler [Rom. Cath.], Commentarius (Constance, 1617, 3 vols. 4to; in Germ., Cologne, 1643, 3 vols. 4to); Lorinus [Rom. Cath.], Commentarii (Lugd. 1617, 3 vols. fol., and often later); Cramer, Auslegungen (Gies. 1618, 4to); Top, Commentarius (Lond. 1619, fol.); Coppen, Notce (Heidelb. 1619; Hanov. 1657, 4to); Schnepf, Commentarius (Lips. 1619, 1628, 1635, fol.); Dupin, Notm (Par. 1691, 8vo); Ainsworth, Annotations [with Pent. and Cant.] (Lond. 1627, 1639, fol.; in Dutch, Leon. 1690, fol.); Crommius [Rom. Cath.], Expositio (Lov. 1628, 4to; Antw. 1652, 8vo); Pulsictius [Rom. Cath.], Expositiones (Ven. 1628, 4to); Marotte, [Rom. Cath.], Commentarius [includ. other passages] (Par. 1630, fol.); Wilcox, Exposition (in Works); Boys, Exposition (in Works); Borghesius [Rom. Cath.], Commentaria (Duaci, 1634, 1637, 8vo); Ginnasius [Rom. Cath.], Interpretationes (Rom. 1636, 2 vols. fol.); Viccaro, Commentarius [rabbinical] (Lond. 1639, 1655, fol.); Bohl, Auflosung (Rost. 1639, 12mo; 1709, 8vo); Maldonatus [Rom. Cath.], Commentarii [includ. other books] (Par. 1643, fol.); Gerschau, Interpretatio [ancient texts] (Rost. 1643, fol.); Dickson, Explication (Lond. 1645, 3 vols. 8vo; 1659, fol.; Glasg. 1834, 2 vols. 12mo); Ford, Expositio (Lond. 1646, 4to); Hulsius, Annotationes (Lugd. 1650, 4to); Bythiner, Lyre [grammatical] (Lond. 1650, 4to, and often since in various forms); Mercado, [includ. Ecclesiastes] (Amst. 1653, 4to); Heser [Rom. Cath.], Explanatio (Ingolst. 1654, 8vo; enlarged, Monach. 1673, 2 vols. fol.); Leigh, Annotatioms [includ. other books] (Lond. 1657, fol.); Hammond, Annotations (ibid. 1659, fol.; also in Works, vol. iv); Price, Adnotationes (in Critici Sacri, vol. iii, ibid. 1660, fol.); Cocceius, Commentarius (L. B. 1660, fol.); Wright, Expositio (Lond. 1662, fol.); Amyraut, Paraphrasis (Salmur. 1662; Traj. 1762, 4to); Bake, Commentarius (Francf. 1665,1683, fol.); Le Blanc [Rom. Cath.], Commentarius (Lugd. 1665-77; Colon. 1680-97, 6 vols. fol.); La Palisse [Rom. Cath.], Expositio (Toulouse, 1666,2 vols. fol.); Geier, Commentarius (Dresd. 1668, 2 vols. 4to, and later); Heser, Commentarius (Monach. 1673, 2 vols. fol.); Bull, Commentary (Lond. 1675, 4to); Dauderstadt, Labores (Lips. 1679, fol.); Hamer, Verklaaringe (Roterd. 1681, 4to); Ferrand [Rom. Cath.], Adnotationes (Par. 1683, 4to); Groenwegen, Verklaaringe (Ench. 1687, 4to); Molderson, Conciones (Antw. 1691, 8vo); Baxter, Paraphrase (Lond. 1692, 8vo); Van Til, Psalmen (Dort, 1693 and later, 4to; in Germ., Cassel, 1697 and later, 4to); Clutterbuck, Explanation (Lond.’ 1702, 8vo); Frisch, Harfe (Stuttg. 1703, 8vo, and often later); Kortum, Anmerkungen (Frankf. 1706, 4to); J. Johnson, Notes (Lond. 1707, 8vo); De Carrieres [Rom. Cath.], Commentaire (Par. 1709, 12mo); Arnold, Betrachtungen (Cassel, 1713, 8vo); Allix, Argument (Lond. 1717, 8vo); P. L. D. G. [Rom. Cath.], Reflexions (Par. 1717, 2 vols. 12mo); Petersen, Aufschliessung (Francf. 1719, 4to); H. Michaelis, Adnotationes (Hal. 1720, 4to); Du Hamel [Rom. Cath.], Adotationes (Rothom. 1701, 12mo); Chasan, (Amst. 1724, 4to); Zeibich, Anmerk. (Eilenb. 1724, 8vo); Merkerlibich, [from Kimchi] (Sulzb. 1728, 4to); Irhoven, In Titulos (Lugd. 1728, 4to); Francke, Erklarung (Hal. 1730-31, 2 vols. 4to); Zeysch, Einleitulng (Leips. 1732, 8vo); Quesnel, Reflexions (Par. 1736, 3 vols. 12mo); Franke, Notoe (Hal. 1738, 1827, 8vo); A. Johnston, Nota (Lond. 1741, 8vo); Foinard, Traduction (Par. 1742, 12mo); Mudge, Version (Lond. 1744, 4to); Van Bashuysen. Notce (ed. Meintell, Suab. 1744, 8vo); Oetinger, Einleitung (Essling. 1748, 8vo); Marini, Annotationes (Bonon. 174850, 2 vols. 4to); Edwards, Notes (Lond. 1755,1850, 8vo); Fenwick, Notes (ibid. 1759, 8vo); Burk, Gnomon (Stuttg. 1760. 2 vols. 4to); Green, Notes (Cambr. 1762, 8vo); Venema, Commentarius (Leov. 1762-67, 6 vols. 4to); Vatablus, Annotationes (ed. Grotius and Vogel, Hal. 1767, 8vo); Vogel, Inscriptiones (ibid. 1767, 4to); Merrick, Annotations (Reading, 1768, 4to); Resch, Hypomnema (Prag. 1769-77, 3 vols. 8vo); Serranus, Metaphrasis (ed. Okely, Gr. and Lat. 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(Berl. 1835, 8vo); *Hitzig, Commentar (Heidelb. 1835-37, 2 vols. 8vo); Fry, Exposition (Lond. 1836, 1842, 8vo); Stier, Auslegung [on seventy psalms] (Halle, 1836, 8vo); Walford, Notes (Lond. 1837, 8vo); Kister, Anmerk. (Konigsb. 1837, 8vo); Krahmer, Erklarung (Leips. 1837- 38, 2 vols. 8vo); Dargand, Traduction (Par. 1838, 8vo); Bush, Commentary (N. Y. 1838, 8vo); *Ewald, Erklarung (Gott. 1839, 1840, 1866, 8vo); Keble, Metrical Version (Oxf. 1839, 8vo); Reisenthal, Versio (Berl. 1840, 8vo); Wiener, De Indole (Erlang. 1840, 8vo); Tucker, Notes (Lond. 1840, 12mo); Biesenthal, Commentar (Berl. 1841,8vo); Anon. Commentar (ibid. 1842, 8vo); Deutsch, Commetar (Leips. 1842, 8vo); *Hengstenberg, Comnmentar (Berl. 1842-47, 1849-54; in Engl., Edinib. 184648, 3 vols. 8vo); Tholuck, Auslegunzq (Halle, 1843, 8vo; transl. by Mambert, Lond. 1856; N. Y. 1858, 8vo); Cresswell, Notes (Lond. 1843, 12mo); Cumming, Paraphrase (ibid. 1843, 12m): *Vaihinger, Erklaruiny (Leips. 1845, 2 vols. 8vo); *Phillips, Commentary (Lond. 1846, 2 vols. 8vo); Jones, Reflections (ibid. 1846,12mo); Jebb, Translation (ibid. 1846, 2 vols. 8vo); Lengerke, Auslegung (Leips. 1847, 2 vols. 8vo); Clowes. 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(Leips. 1861, 8vo); *Perowne, Votes (Lond. 1864-66, 186t8-70, 2 vols. 8vo); Kay, Notes (Oxf. 1864, 8v); Monrad, Oversatt. (Copenh. 1865, 8ro); Kurtz, Zur Theologie (Leips. 186, 8vo); Plumer, Studies (Lond. 1867, 8vo); Barnes, Notes (N. Y. 1869, 3 vols. 8vo); Splurgeoni, exposition (Lond. 1870-72,3 vols. 8vo); Linton, Explanation (ibil. 1871, 8vo); Burton, Paraphrase (ibid. 1871, 8vo); Conant, Version (N.Y. 1871, 4to); Cowles, Notes (ibid. 1872, 12mo); *Murphy, Commentary (Lond. 1875, 8vo); M’Lean, Expositions (ibid. 1875, 8vo); Heiligstedt, Auslegung (vol. i, Halle, 1876, 8vo). SEE OLD TESTAMENT.

Fuente: Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature

PSALMS, BOOK OF

A psalm is a hymn of praise to God designed to be sung to the accompaniment of music. The book of Psalms is a collection of 150 such hymns.

One hymn book for all

The collection of the various psalms into one volume seems to have taken place gradually over a long time. Although each psalm is a unit in itself, not necessarily connected with those before or after it, certain psalms have been grouped together. They may have come from smaller collections already in existence (e.g. those of the sons of Korah; see Psalms 44; Psalms 45; Psalms 46; Psalms 47; Psalms 48; Psalms 49), and may have been arranged in a certain order (e.g. Psa 120-134). Five groups (or books) make up the collection. The five books are . The five books are Psalms 1-41, 42-72, 73-89, 90-106 and 107-150.

At the end of each of the first four books, an expression of praise has been added to mark the close of the book. The very last psalm, the 150th, has been placed where it is to form a climax to the entire collection.

Within the hymn book there are psalms for all occasions. Some were written specifically for use in public worship and temple festivals (e.g. Psalms 38); others were adapted from personal psalms (e.g. Psalms 54). Some were written for use on great national occasions such as coronations, victory celebrations and royal weddings (e.g. Psalms 2; Psalms 18; Psalms 45); others arose from circumstances in the lives of private individuals (e.g. Psalms 3; Psalms 75). The psalms may have expressed joy and confidence on the one hand, or terror and uncertainty on the other.

Writers of the psalms

Many of the psalms have titles that give the name of the writer or the name of the person(s) from whose collection they were taken (e.g. Psalms 41; Psalms 42). David is named as the author of 73 psalms, which is almost half the collection. He was a gifted musician and writer (1Sa 16:23; 2Sa 23:1), and was the person who established the various groups of singers and musicians for the temple services (1Ch 15:16-28; 1Ch 16:7; 1Ch 16:37-42).

David arranged the singers and musicians into three groups under the leadership of three men taken from the three family groups that made up the tribe of Levi. The three men were Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun) (1Ch 6:31-48; 1Ch 15:17-19; 1Ch 16:5; 1Ch 16:42), and between them they wrote a number of psalms that have been included in the book of Psalms (e.g. Psalms 50; Psalms 73; Psalms 74; Psalms 75; Psalms 76; Psalms 77; Psalms 78; Psalms 88; Psalms 89). The book also contains two psalms credited to Solomon (Psalms 72; Psalms 127) and one to Moses (Psalms 90).

Language of the psalms

Hebrew poetry has certain characteristics that the reader needs to know if he is to interpret the psalms correctly. The rhythm in Hebrew poetry comes not from metre and rhyme as in English poetry, but from the balanced arrangement of words and sentences. For this reason, Hebrew poetry can retain some of its style even when translated.

The balanced arrangement of Hebrew poetry is well demonstrated in the book of Psalms. Often the writer expresses one central idea by making parallel statements that have virtually the same meaning (Psa 7:16). Sometimes only one or two words are changed (Psa 118:8-9). The writer may make further emphasis by giving an application of his central idea (Psa 37:7), by contrasting two truths (Psa 68:6), or by otherwise developing his theme through a careful arrangement of related statements (Psa 4:3-5).

In some psalms the writer may repeat a verse to provide a refrain (Psa 42:5; Psa 42:11; Psa 46:7; Psa 46:11). In others he may begin successive verses with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet (from A to Z, so to speak). This produces a kind of verse known as an acrostic (e.g. Psalms 25; Psalms 34; Psalms 119). (See also POETRY.)

The titles of the psalms, though not necessarily written by those who wrote the psalms, often include directions for those in charge of the music. The directions may indicate the kind of instruments to be used (Psalms 4; Psalms 5) and the tune to which the song is to be sung (Psalms 53; Psalms 56; Psalms 58). Words such as Shiggaion (Psalms 7), Miktam (Psalms 16) and Maskil (Psalms 55) are Hebrew words of uncertain meaning. They may indicate the kind of hymn or the occasion on which it should be sung. Selah is probably a musical term used to indicate a variation in the music, such as a pause, the repetition of a line, or a change in the volume or speed of the music (Psa 89:37; Psa 89:45; Psa 89:48).

Interpreting the psalms

Like all writings of the Old Testament, the psalms must be interpreted in their historical context. The present-day readers first responsibility is to understand each psalm as its author intended it to be understood.

However, the New Testament writers often saw meanings in the psalms that the original writers were not aware of. Jesus Christ was the fulfilment of all that God intended the nation Israel to be. The Davidic kings of Israel foreshadowed the greatest of all Davidic kings, Jesus the Messiah. When writing about the Davidic kings, the psalmists freely spoke of Israels ideals of triumph and glory, but those ideals found their perfect expression only in Jesus Christ (cf. Psalms 2 with Act 4:25-31; Act 13:33-34; Heb 1:5; Heb 5:5; cf. Psalms 45 with Heb 1:8-9; cf. Psalms 110 with Mat 22:41-46; Heb 7:15-17; see MESSIAH).

The failures of the Davidic kings, however, indicate how far they fell short of Gods perfect requirements. In a psalm that speaks of the ideal qualities of the Davidic king there may also be references to the kings sins. The New Testament writers may therefore quote from one part of a psalm and apply it to Christ (cf. Psa 69:4; Psa 69:9; Psa 69:21 with Joh 2:17; Joh 15:25; Mat 27:34; Mat 27:38), though other parts of the same psalm may refer to the Davidic kings sins and therefore could never apply to Christ (cf. Psa 69:5 with 1Pe 2:22; 1Jn 3:5).

Just as the reader must interpret each psalm according to the psalmists purpose, so must he interpret a New Testament application of a psalm according to the New Testament writers purpose. As the psalmists were concerned with suffering and victory, so are the New Testament writers as they consider the work of Christ

When the godly of the Old Testament era suffered for righteousness sake, they anticipated Christs sufferings (cf. Psa 22:1-18; Mat 27:39-46). (This may be likened to the experience of Christians who, when they suffer for righteousness sake, share in Christs sufferings; 2Co 1:5; Php 3:10.) Similarly, when godly kings of Israel won great victories, they anticipated the triumphs of Christ (cf. Psa 68:17-18; Eph 1:18-23; Eph 4:8-10).

Christ, the true embodiment of Israel, so shared his peoples sufferings that in the end he bore the full force of Gods wrath against sin. But he came out victorious, so that people can enter a kingdom greater than Israel ever imagined (cf. Psa 22:19-31 with Php 2:7-11; Rev 5:9-14).

Fuente: Bridgeway Bible Dictionary

Psalms, Book of

samz, (, tehillm, praises, , sepher tehillm, book of praises; , Psalmo, , Psalterion):

I.INTRODUCTORY TOPICS

1.Title

2.Place in the Canon

3.Number of Psalms

4.Titles in the Hebrew Text

II.AUTHORSHIP AND AGE OF THE PSALMS

1.David as a Psalmist

2.Psalmody after David

III.GROWTH OF THE PSALTER

1.Division into Five Books

2.Smaller Groups of Psalms

IV.POETRY OF THE PSALTER

V.THE SPEAKER IN THE PSALMS

VI.THE GOSPEL IN THE PSALTER

1.The Soul’s Converse with God

2.The Messiah

3.Problem of Sin

4.Wrestling with Doubts

5.Out of the Depths

6.Ethical Ideals

7.Praying against the Wicked

8.The Future Life

LITERATURE

I. Introductory Topics.

1. Title:

The Hebrew title for the Psalter is sepher tehillm, book of praises. When we consider the fact that more than 20 of these poems have praise for their keynote, and that there are outbursts of thanksgiving in many others, the fitness of the Hebrew title dawns upon us. As Ker well says, The book begins with benediction, and ends with praise – first, blessing to man, and then glory to God. Hymns of praise, though found in all parts of the Psalter, become far more numerous in Books IV and V, as if the volume of praise would gather itself up into a Hallelujah Chorus at the end. In the Greek version the book is entitled in some manuscripts Psalmoi, in others Psalterion, whence come our English titles Psalms, and Psalter. The Greek word psalmos, as well as the Hebrew mizmor, both of which are used in the superscriptions prefixed to many of the separate psalms, indicates a poem sung to the accompaniment of stringed instruments. The title mizmor is found before 57 psalms. The Psalter was the hymnal of the Jewish nation. To individual psalms other titles are sometimes prefixed, such as shr, song; tehillah, praise; tehillah, prayer, etc. The Psalter was both prayerbook and hymnal to the Jewish people. It was also a manual for the nurture of the spiritual life in private as well as public worship.

2. Place in the Canon:

The Psalms were placed in the kethubhm or Writings, the third group of the Hebrew Scriptures. As the chief book of the kethubhm, the Psalter appears first in the great majority of German manuscripts, though the Spanish manuscripts place Psalms after Chronicles, and the Talmud puts Ruth before Psalms. There has never been any serious question as to the right of the Psalter to a place in the Canon of Scripture. The book is possibly more highly esteemed among Christians than by the Jews. If Christians were permitted to retain only one book in the Old Testament, they would almost certainly choose Psalms. By 100 BC, and probably at a much earlier date, the Book of Psalms was completed and recognized as part of the Hagiographa, the 3rd division of the Hebrew Bible.

3. Number of Psalms:

According to the Hebrew text, followed by modern VSS, there are 150 separate poems in the Psalter. The Greek version has an additional psalm, in which David describes his victory over Goliath; but this is expressly said to be outside the number. The Septuagint, followed by Vulgate, combined Psalms 9 and 10, and also Psa 114:1-8 and 115, into a single psalm. On the other hand, they divide Psalms 116 and 147 each into two poems. Thus, for the greater part of the Psalter the Hebrew enumeration is one number in advance of that in the Greek and Latin Bibles.

The existing division in the Hebrew text has been called in question at various points. Psa 42:1-11 and Psa 43:1-5 are almost certainly one poem (see refrain in Psa 42:5, Psa 42:11; Psa 43:5); and it is probable that Psalms 9 and 10 were originally one, as in Septuagint. On the other hand, it is thought by some that certain psalms were composed of two psalms which were originally separate. We may cite as examples Psa 19:1-6, Psa 19:7-14; Psa 24:1-6, Psa 24:7-10; Psa 27:1-6, Psa 27:7-14; Psa 36:1-4, Psa 36:5-12. It is evident that such combinations of two different poems into one may have taken place, for we have an example in Psa 108:1-13, which is composed of portions of two other psalms (Psa 57:7-11; Psa 60:5-12).

4. Titles in the Hebrew Text:

(1) Value of the Superscriptions.

It is the fashion among advanced critics to waive the titles of the psalms out of court as wholly worthless and misleading. This method is as thoroughly unscientific as the older procedure of defending the superscriptions as part of an inspired text. These titles are clearly very old, for the Septuagint, in the 2nd century BC, did not understand many of them. The worst that can be said of the superscriptions is that they are guesses of Hebrew editors and scribes of a period long prior to the Greek version. As to many of the musical and liturgical titles, the best learning of Hebrew and Christian scholars is unable to recover the original meaning. The scribes who prefixed the titles had no conceivable reason for writing nonsense into their prayerbook and hymnal. These superscriptions and subscriptions all had a worthy meaning, when they were first placed beside individual psalms. This indisputable fact of the great antiquity of these titles ought forever to make it impossible for scientific research to ignore them. Grant for the sake of argument, that not one of them came from the pen of the writers of the Psalms, but only from editors and compilers of exilic or post-exilic days, it would still be reasonable to give attention to the views of ancient Hebrew scholars, before considering the conjectures of modern critics on questions of authorship and date. Sources of information, both oral and written, to which they had access, have long since perished. In estimating the value of their work, we have a right to use the best critical processes known to us; but it is unscientific to overlook the fact that their proximity to the time of the composition of the Psalms gave them an advantage over the modern scholar. If it be said by objectors that these ancient scribes formed their conclusions by the study of the life of David as portrayed in the historical books of Kings and Chronicles, the reply is ready that several historical notices in the titles cannot be thus explained. Who was Cush? Who was Abimelech? (Psalms 7 and 34). A careful weighing of the facts concerning the superscriptions will make it seem highly improbable that the earliest of these titles does not reach back into pre-exilic times. We almost certainly have in them the results of the labors of Hebrew scribes and compilers stretching over several centuries. Some of the titles may have been appended by the psalmists themselves.

We are far from claiming that the titles are always intelligible to us, or that, when understood, they are always correct. The process of constructing titles indicative of authorship had not ceased in the 2nd century BC, the Septuagint adding many to psalms that were anonymous in the Hebrew. The view expressed nearly 50 years ago by Perowne is eminently sane: The inscriptions cannot always be relied on. They are sometimes genuine, and really represent the most ancient tradition. At other times, they are due to the caprice of later editors and collectors, the fruits of conjecture, or of dimmer and more uncertain traditions. In short, the inscriptions of the Psalms are like the subscriptions to the Epistles of the New Testament. They are not of any necessary authority, and their value must be weighed and tested by the usual critical processes.

(2) Thirtle’s Theory.

J. W. Thirtle (The Titles of the Psalms, 1904) advances the hypothesis that both superscriptions and subscriptions were incorporated in the Psalter, and that in the process of copying the Psalms by hand, the distinction between the superscription of a given psalm and the subscription of the one immediately preceding it was finally lost. When at length the different psalms were separated from one another, as in printed editions, the subscriptions and superscriptions were all set forth as superscriptions. Thus it came about that the musical subscription of a given psalm was prefixed to the literary superscription of the psalm immediately following it. The prayer of Habakkuk (Hab 3) was taken by Thirtle as a model or normal psalm; and in this instance the superscription was literary. A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet, upon Shigionoth, while the subscription is musical, For the Chief Musician, on my stringed instruments. The poem of Hezekiah in celebration of his recovery (Isa 38:9-20) seems to support Thirtle’s thesis, the superscription stating the authorship and the occasion that gave birth to the psalm, while Isa 38:20 hints at the musical instruments with which the psalm was to be accompanied in public worship. If now the musical notes be separated from the notes of authorship and date that follow them, the musical notes being appended as subscriptions, while the literary notes are kept as real superscriptions, the outcome of the separation is in many instances a more intelligible nexus between title and poem. Thus the subscript to Ps 55, The dove of the distant terebinths, becomes a pictorial title of Psa 55:6-8 of the psalm. The application of the rule that the expression for the Chief Musician is always a subscript removes the difficulty in the title of Ps 88. The superscription of Ps 88, on Thirtle’s hypothesis, becomes Maschil of Heman the Ezrahite. Psa 87:1-7 thus has a subscript that repeats the statement of its superscription, but with an addition which harmonizes with the content of the poem. Mahalath Leannoth, with a slight correction in vocalization, probably means Dancings with Shoutings, and Psa 87:7 speaks of both singing and dancing. The tone of Psa 87:1-7 is exceedingly cheerful; but Ps 88 is the saddest in the entire Psalter. The application of Thirtle’s hypothesis also leaves Ps 88 with a consistent literary title, whereas the usual title ascribes the psalm first to the sons of Korah and then to Heman the Ezrahite.

(3) Meaning of the Hebrew Titles.

Scholars have not been able to come to agreement as to the meaning and application of a goodly number of words and phrases found in the titles of the Psalms. We append an alphabetical list, together with hints as to the probable meaning:

(a) ‘Ayeleth ha-Shahar (Ps 22) means the hind of the morning, or possibly the help of the morning. Many think that the words were the opening line of some familiar song.

(b) Alamoth (Psa 46:1-11) means maidens. The common view is that the psalm was to be sung by soprano voices. Some speak of a female choir and compare 1Ch 15:20; Psa 68:11, Psa 68:24 f. According to Thirtle, the title is a subscript to Ps 45, which describes the marriage of a princess, a function at which it would be quite appropriate to have a female choir.

(c) ‘Al-tashheth (Psalms 57 through 59; Psa 75:1-10) means destroy not; and is quite suitable as a subscript to Psalms 56 through 58 and 74 (compare Deu 9:26). Many think this the first word of a vintage song (compare Isa 65:8).

(d) Ascents, Song of (Psa 120:1-7 through 184): the Revised Version (British and American) translates the title to 15 psalms A Song of Ascents, where the King James Version has A Song of Degrees. The most probable explanation of the meaning of the expression is that these 15 psalms were sung by bands of pilgrims on their way to the yearly feasts in Jerusalem (Psa 122:4). Psalms 121 through 123; Psa 125:1-5; Psa 127:1-5; Psa 128:1-6 and 132 through 134 are well suited for use on such occasions (see, however, Expository Times, XII, 62).

(e) For the Chief Musician: 55 psalms are dedicated to the precentor or choir leader of the temple. To the Chief Musician might mean that the precentor was the author of certain psalms, or that there was a collection of hymns compiled by him for use in temple worship, or that certain psalms were placed in his hands, with suggestions as to the character of the poems and the music which was to accompany them. It is quite likely that there was an official collection of psalms for public worship in the custody of the choir master of the temple.

(f) Dedication of the House (Psa 30:1-12): The title probably refers to the dedication of Yahweh’s house; whether in the days of David, in connection with the removal of the ark to Jerusalem, or in the days of Zerubbabel, or in the time of Judas Maccabeus, it is impossible to say positively. If Psa 39:1-13 was used on any one of these widely separated occasions, that fact might account for the insertion of the caption, a Song at the Dedication of the House.

(g) Degrees: see Ascents above.

(h) Gittth (Psa 8:1-9; 81; Psa 84:1-12) is commonly supposed to refer to an instrument invented in Gath or to a tune that was used in the Philistine city. Thirtle emends slightly to gittoth, wine presses, and connects Psalms 7; 80 and 83 with the Feast of Tabernacles.

(i) Higgayon: This word is not strictly a title, but occurs in connection with Selah in Psa 9:16. the Revised Version (British and American) translates the word in Psa 92:3, a solemn sound, and in Psa 19:14, meditation. It is probably a musical note equivalent to largo.

(j) Yedhuthun: In the title of Psa 39:1-13, Jeduthun might well be identical with the Chief Musician. In Psa 62:1-12 and 77 the Revised Version (British and American) renders after the manner of Jeduthun. We know from 1Ch 16:41; 1Ch 25:3 that JEDUTHUN (which see) was a choir leader in the days of David. He perhaps introduced a method of conducting the service of song which ever afterward was associated with his name.

(k) Yonath ‘elem rehokm (Psa 56:1-13): We have already called attention to the fact that as a subscript to Ps 55 the dove of the distant terebinths, or the silent dove of them that are afar off, would have a point of contact with Psa 55:6-8.

(l) Mahalath (Psa 53:1-6), Mahalath leannoth (Ps 88): Perhaps Thirtle’s vocalization of the Hebrew consonants as meholoth, dancings, is correct. As a subscript to Psa 87:1-7; meholoth may refer to David’s joy at the bringing of the ark to Zion (2Sa 6:14, 2Sa 6:15).

(m) Maskl (Psa 32:1-11; 42 through 45; 52 through 55; 74; 78; 88; 89; Psa 142:1-7): The exact meaning of this common term is not clear. Briggs suggests a meditation, Thirtle and others a psalm of instruction, Kirkpatrick a cunning psalm. Some of the 13 psalms bearing this title are plainly didactic, while others are scarcely to be classed as psalms of instruction.

(n) Mikhtam (Psa 16:1-11; 56 through 60): Following the rabbinical guess, some translate a golden poem. The exact meaning is unknown.

(o) Muth labben: The title is generally supposed to refer to a composition entitled Death of the Son. Possibly the melody to which this composition was sung was the tune to which Ps 9 (or 8) was to be sung. Thirtle translates The Death of the Champion, and regards it as a subscription to Psa 8:1-9, in celebration of the victory over Goliath.

(p) On Neghnoth” occurs 6 times (Psa 4:1-8; Psa 6:1-10; Psa 54:1-7; 55; Psa 67:1-7; Psa 76:1-12), and means with stringed instruments. Neghnath (Psa 61:1-8) may be a slightly defective writing for Neghnoth. Perhaps stringed instruments alone were used with psalms having this title. According to Thirtle’s hypothesis, the title was originally a subscript to Psa 3:1-8; Psa 5:1-12; Psa 53:1-6; Psa 54:1-7; Psa 60:1-12; 66; Psa 75:1-10.

(q) Nehloth (Psa 5:1-12), possibly a subscript to Psa 4:1-8, is supposed by some to refer to wind instruments, possibly flutes.

(r) Selah, though not strictly a title, may well be discussed in connection with the superscriptions. It occurs 71 times in the Psalms and 3 times in Habakkuk. It is almost certainly technical term whose meaning was well known to the precentor and the choir in the temple. The Septuagint always, Symmachus and Theodotion generally, render diapsalma, which probably denotes an instrumental interlude. The Targum Aquila and some other ancient versions render forever. Jerome, following Aquila, translates it always. Many moderns derive Selah from a root meaning to raise, and suppose it to be a sign to the musicians to strike up with a louder accompaniment. Possibly the singing ceased for a moment. A few think it is a liturgical direction to the congregation to lift up their voices in benediction. It is unwise to dogmatize as to the meaning of this very common word. See SELAH.

(s) Shemnth (Psa 6:1-10; Psa 12:1-8), meaning the eighth, probably denotes the male choir, as distinguished from Alamoth, the maidens’ choir. That both terms are musical notes is evident from 1Ch 15:19-21.

(t) Shiggayon (Ps 7) is probably a musical note. Some think it denotes a dithyrambic poem in wild ecstatic wandering rhythms, with corresponding music.

(u) Shoshannm (Psalms 45; 69) means lilies. Shoshannm edhuth (Ps 80) means lilies, a testimony. Shushan edhuth (Psa 60:1-12) may be rendered the lily of testimony. Thirtle represents these titles as subscripts to Psalms 44; 59; 68; Psa 79:1-13, and associates them with the spring festival, Passover. Others regard them as indicating the melody to which the various psalms were to be sung.

(v) Song of Loves (Ps 45) is appropriate as a literary title to a marriage song.

(4) Testimony of the Titles as to Authorship.

(a) Ps 90 is ascribed to Moses. (b) To David 73 psalms are ascribed, chiefly in Books I and II. (c) Two are assigned to Solomon (Psalms 72; Psa 127:1-5). (d) 12 are ascribed to Asaph (Psalms 50; 73 through 83). (e) 11 are assigned to the sons of Korah (Psalms 42 through 49; Psa 84:1-12; Psa 85:1-13; Psa 87:1-7). (f) Ps 88 is attributed to Heman the Ezrahite. (g) Ps 89 bears the name of Ethan the Ezrahire. In most cases it is plain that the editors meant to indicate the authors or writers of the psalms. It is possible that the phrase to David may sometimes have been prefixed to certain psalms, merely to indicate that they were found in a collection which contained Davidic psalms. It is also possible that the titles to Asaph and’ to the sons of Korah may have originally meant that the psalms thus designated belonged to a collection in the custody of these temple singers. Ps 72 may also be a prayer for Solomon rather than a psalm by Solomon. At the same time, we must acknowledge, in the light of the titles describing the occasion of composition, that the most natural interpretation of the various superscriptions is that they indicate the supposed authors of the various poems to which they are prefixed. Internal evidence shows conclusively that some of these titles are incorrect. Each superscription should be tested by a careful study of the psalm to which it is appended.

(5) Titles Describing the Occasion of Writing.

There are 13 of these, all bearing the name of David. (a) Psalms 7; 59; Psa 56:1-13; 34; Psa 52:1-9; Psa 57:1-11; Psa 142:1-7; Psa 54:1-7 are assigned to the period of his persecution by Saul. (b) During the period of his reign over. all Israel, David is credited with Psalms 18; Psa 60:1-12; 51; Psa 3:1-8; and 63.

II. Authorship and Age of the Psalms.

Ps 90 is ascribed to Moses. It is the fashion now to deny that Moses wrote anything. A careful study of Ps 90 has brought to light nothing inconsistent with Mosaic authorship. The dignity, majesty and pathos of the poem are worthy of the great lawgiver and intercessor.

1. David as a Psalmist:

(1) The Age of David Offered Fruitful Soil for the Growth of Religious Poetry.

(a) The political and religious reforms of Samuel created a new sense of national unity, and kindled the fires of religious patriotism. (b) Music had a large place in the life of the prophetic guilds or schools of the prophets, and was used in public religious exercises (1Sa 10:5 f). (c) The victories of David and the internal expansion of the life of Israel would inevitably stimulate the poetic instinct of men of genius; compare the Elizabethan age and the Victorian era in English literature. (d) The removal of the ark to the new capital and the organization of the Levitical choirs would stimulate poets to compose hymns of praise to Yahweh (2 Sam 6; 1 Ch 15; 16; 25).

It is the fashion in certain critical circles to blot out the Mosaic era as unhistoric, all accounts of it being considered legendary or mythical. It is easy then to insist on the elimination of all the higher religious teaching attributed to Samuel. This leaves David a rude king in a semi-barbaric age, or, as Cheyne puts it, the versatile condottiere, chieftain, and king. It would seem more reasonable to accept as trustworthy the uniform tradition of Israel as to the great leaders, Moses, Samuel and David, than to rewrite Israel’s history out of the tiny fragments of historical material that are accepted by skeptical critics as credible. It is often said that late writers read into their accounts of early heroes their own ideas of what would be fitting. James Robertson’s remark in reply has great weight: This habit of explaining the early as the backward projection of the late is always liable to the objection that it leaves the late itself without explanation (Poetry and Religion of the Psalms, 332).

(2) David’s Qualifications for Composing Psalms

(a) He was a skillful musician, with a sense of rhythm and an ear for pleasing sounds (1Sa 16:15-23). He seems to have invented new instruments of music (Amo 6:5). (b) He is recognized by critics of all schools as a poet of no mean ability. The genuineness of his elegy over Saul and Jonathan (2Sa 1:19-27) is commonly accepted; also his lament over Abner (2Sa 3:33 f). In the elegy over Saul and Jonathan, David displays a magnanimity and tenderness that accord with the representations of S as to his treatment of Saul and of Jonathan. No mere rough border chieftain could have composed a poem full of the tenderest sentiment and the most exemplary attitude toward a persecutor. The moral elevation of the elegy has to be accounted for. If the author was a deeply religious man, a man enjoying the friendship of God, it is easy to account for the moral dignity of the poem. Surely it is only a step from the patriotism and magnanimity and devoted friendship of the elegy to the religious fervor of the Psalms. Moreover, the poetic skill displayed in the elegy removes the possible objection that literary art in the days of David had not attained a development equal to the composition of poems such as the Psalms. There is nothing more beautiful and artistic in the entire Psalter.

Radical critics saw the David of the Bible asunder. They contrast the rough border chieftain with the pious Psalmist. Though willing to believe every statement that reflects upon the moral character of David, they consider the references to David as a writer of hymns and the organizer of the temple choirs as the pious imaginings of late chroniclers. Robertson well says: This habit of refusing to admit complexity in the capacities of Biblical characters is exceedingly hazardous and unsafe, when history is so full of instances of the combination in one person of qualities the most diverse. We not only have poets who can harp upon more than one string, but we have religious leaders who have united the most fervent piety with the exercise of poorly developed virtue, or the practice of very questionable policy. A critic, if he has not a single measure of large enough capacity for a historical character, should not think himself at liberty to measure him out in two halfbushels, making one man of each (Poetry and Religion of the Psalms, 332). Among kings, Charlemagne and Constantine the Great have been likened to David; and among poets, Robert Burns. There were contradictory elements in the moral characters of all these gifted men. Of Constantine it has been said that he was by turns the docile believer and the cruel despot, devotee and murderer, patron saint and avenging demon. David was a many-sided man, with a character often at war with itself, a man with conflicting impulses, the flesh lusting against the spirit and the spirit against the flesh. Men of flesh and blood in the midst of life’s temptations have no difficulty in understanding the David of the Bible.

(c) David was a man of deep feeling and of imperial imagination. Think of his love for Jonathan, his grateful appreciation of every exploit done in his behalf by his mighty men, his fondness for Absalom. His successful generalship would argue for imagination, as well as the vivid imagery of the elegy. (d) David was an enthusiastic worshipper of Yahweh. All the records of his life agree in representing him as devoted to Israel’s God. In the midst of life’s dangers and disappointments, David strengthened himself in Yahweh his God (1Sa 30:6). We should have been surprised had no trace of religious poetry come from his pen. It would be difficult to imagine Milton or Cowper or Tennyson as confining himself to secular poetry. Comus, John Gilpin, and the Charge of the Light Brigade did not exhaust their genius; nor did the elegy over Saul and Jonathan and the lament over Abner relieve David’s soul of the poetry that clamored for expression. The known facts of his life and times prepare us for an outburst of psalmody under his leadership. (e) The varied experiences through which David passed were of a character to quicken any latent gifts for poetic expression.

James Robertson states this argument clearly, and yet with becoming caution: The vicissitudes and situations in David’s life presented in these narratives are of such a nature that, though we may not be able to say precisely that such and such a psalm was composed at such and such a time and place, yet we may confidently say, Here is a man who has passed through certain experiences and borne himself in such wise that we are not surprised to hear that, being a poet, he composed this and the other psalms. It is very doubtful whether we should tie down any lyric to a precise set of circumstances, the poet being like a painter who having found a fit landscape, sits down to transfer it to canvas. I do not think it likely that David, finding himself in some great perplexity or sorrow, called for writing materials in order to describe the situation or record his feelings. But I do think it probable that the vicissitudes through which he passed made such an impression on his sensitive heart, and became so inculcated withn an emotional nature, that when he soothed himself in his retirement with his lyre, they came forth spontaneously in the form of a psalm or song or prayer, according as the recollection was sad or joyful, and as his singing mood moved him (Poetry and Religion of the Psalms, 343 f).

The Biblical writers, both early and late, agree in affirming that the Spirit of Yahweh rested upon David, empowering him for service of the highest order (1Sa 16:13; 2Sa 23:1-3; Mat 22:43;. Act 2:29-31). The gift of prophetic inspiration was bestowed upon Israel’s chief musician and poet.

(3) External Evidence for Davidic Psalms

(a) In the New Testament David is named as the author of certain psalms. Thus Psa 110:1-7 is ascribed to David by Jesus in His debate with the Pharisees in the Temple (Mat 22:41-45; Mar 12:35-37; Luk 20:41-44). Peter teaches that David prophesied concerning Judas (Act 1:16), and he also refers Psa 16:1-11 and Psa 110:1-7 to David (Act 2:25-34). The whole company of the disciples in prayer attribute Psa 2:1-12 to David (Act 4:25 f). Paul quotes Psa 32:1-11 and 69 as Davidic (Rom 4:6-8; Rom 11:9 f). The author of He even refers Psa 95:1-11 to David, following the Septuagint (Heb 4:7). From the last-named passage many scholars infer that any quotation from the Psalms might be referred to David as the chief author of the Psalms. Possibly this free and easy method of citation, without any attempt at rigorous critical accuracy, was in vogue in the 1st century AD. At the same time, it is evident that the view that David was the chief author of the Psalms was accepted by the New Testament writers. (b) In 2 Macc 2:13 (the Revised Version),in a letter purporting to have been written by the Jews of Palestine to their brethren in Egypt, about 144 BC, occurs the following: And the same things were related both in the public archives and in the records that concern Nehemiah; and how he, rounding a library, gathered together the books about the kings and prophets, and the books of David, and letters of kings about sacred gifts. We do not know the exact date of 2 Maccabees, but it was almost certainly in the 1st century BC. The author regards David as the author of books in the sacred library gathered together by Nehemiah. (c) Jesus the Son of Sirach, who wrote not later than 180 BC, and possibly a good deal earlier, thus describes David’s contribution to public worship: In every work of his he gave thanks to the Holy One Most High with words of glory; with his whole heart he sang praise, and loved him that made him (Ecclesiasticus 47:8 f the Revised Version (British and American)). David’s fame as a psalmist and the organizer of choirs for the sanctuary was well known to Ben Sira at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. (d) The author of Chronicles, writing not later than 300 BC, and probably much earlier, represents David as making provision for a service of song before the ark of God and in connection with its removal to the city of David (1 Ch 15; 16). It seems to be imagined by some scholars that the Chronicler, whose historical accuracy is severely attacked by certain critics, is responsible for the idea that David was a great writer of hymns. On the contrary, he has less to say about David as a poet and psalmist than the author of Samuel. Only in 2Ch 29:30 is there explicit mention of David as the author of praises to Yahweh. The Chronicler speaks repeatedly of the instruments of David and of his organization of the choirs. And so in the kindred books of Ezra and Nehemiah there is mention of the style of worship introduced by David (Ezr 3:10; Neh 12:24, Neh 12:36). The author of the Book of Kings refers repeatedly to David as a model king (1Ki 11:4; 2Ki 14:3; 2Ki 20:5 f, etc.). He becomes a witness for the high reputation of David for uprightness and religious zeal. (e) Amos refers incidentally to David’s great skill as an inventor of musical instruments (Amo 6:5). The same prophet is a witness to the fact that songs were sung in worship at Bethel to the accompaniment of harps or viols (Amo 5:23). (f) The earliest witness, or witnesses, if the narrative be composite, we find in 1 and 2 Samuel. David is described as a wonderful musician and as one on whom the Spirit of Yahweh rested mightily (1Sa 16:13-23). He is credited with the beautiful elegy oyer Saul and Jonathan (2Sa 1:17-27) and the brief lament over Abner (2Sa 3:33 f) . He is said to have danced with joy before the ark, and to have brought it up to Jerusalem with shouting and with sound of trumpet (2Sa 6:12 ff). He is credited with the pious wish that he might build a temple for Yahweh and the ark, and is said to have poured forth a prayer of thanksgiving to Yahweh for the promise of a perpetual throne (2 Sam 7). David dedicated to Yahweh much wealth taken from his enemies. (2Sa 8:11). Both the good and the bad in David’s life and character are faithfully set forth in the vivid narrative.

We come next to two statements that would settle the question of David’s psalms, if critics would only accept them as the work of an author living within a generation or so of the time of David. Unfortunately 2 Sam 21 through 24 is regarded by most critical scholars as an appendix to the early narrative of David’s career. There is no agreement as to the exact date of the composition of these chapters. Naturally the burden of proof is on the critic who tries to disintegrate a document, and suspicion of bias is inevitable, if by the disintegration he is able to escape the force of a disagreeable argument. Happily, we live in a free country, every man having a right to hold and to express his own opinion, for whatever it may be worth. It seems to the present writer that 2 Sam 21 through 24 may well have come from the pen of the early narrator who told the story of David’s reign in such a masterly fashion. Even if these chapters were added by a later editor as an appendix, there is no sufficient reason for putting this writer so late as the exile. His statements cannot be set aside as unreliable, simply because they run counter to the current theory as to the date of the Psalms. 2 Sam 22 purports to give the words of a song which David spake to Yahweh, when he had been delivered from Saul and from all his enemies. Ps 18 is evidently a different recension of the same poem. The differences between 2 Sam 22 and Ps 18 are not much greater than the differences in the various odd of Rock of Ages. Only the most advanced critics deny that David wrote this glorious song. 2Sa 23:1-7 must not be omitted, for here David claimed prophetic inspiration as the sweet Psalmist of Israel. This original and striking poem is worthy of the brilliant royal bard. (g) The titles of the Psalms are external evidence of real value for determining the date and authorship of the Psalms; and these ascribe 73 to David. A sweeping denial of all the forms of external evidence for Davidic psalms ought to be buttressed by convincing arguments from internal evidence. Unverified conjectures will not answer.

(4) Internal Evidence for Davidic Psalms

The fact that many of the psalms ascribed to David correspond in tone and temper and in historical allusions with incidents in his life, while not in itself convincing proof that David wrote them, certainly re-enforces the external evidence in favor of Davidic psalms. We must refer the reader to the commentaries of Delitzsch, Kirkpatrick, Perowne and others for the evidence discovered in individual psalms. In many psalms the evidence is strongly in favor of the superscriptions, in which David is named as the writer. See especially Psalms 18; Psa 23:1-6; Psa 32:1-11; Psa 3:1-8.

(5) Number of Davidic Psalms

Opinion varies among conservative scholars all the way from 3 or 4 to 44 or 45. It has come to pass that a critic who acknowledges even Ps 18 to be David’s is called conservative. In fact, the more radical critics regard a scholar as conservative if he assigns even a small group of psalms to the period before the exile. We must not allow ourselves to be deterred from ascribing to David any psalm that seems to us, on the basis of both external and internal evidence, to come from his pen. Delitzsch and Kirkpatrick are safer guides than Cheyne and Duhm. Maclaren also has made a close and sympathetic study of David’s life and character, and accepts the results of sane criticism. W. T. Davison (HDB, IV) speaks out clearly and strongly for Davidic authorship of Psalms 7; Psa 11:1-7; Psa 17:1-15; 18; Psa 19:1-14 (first half), 24 and a few other psalms or parts of psalms, though he makes large concessions to the present tendency to bring the psalms down to a later date. He stands firmly for a large body of pre-exilic psalms. Ewald assigned to David Psa 3:1-8; Psa 4:1-8; 7; Psa 8:1-9; Psa 11:1-7; 18; Psa 19:1-14; Psa 24:1-10; Psa 29:1-11; Psa 32:1-11; Psa 101:1-8; also Psa 60:8-11 and Psa 68:14-19. Hitzig ascribed to David Psalms 3 through 19, with the exception of Psa 5:1-12; Psa 6:1-10 and Psa 14:1-7. If one follows the titles in the Hebrew text, except where internal evidence clearly contradicts the superscriptions, it will be easy, to follow Delitzsch in attributing 44 or 45 psalms to David.

2. Psalmody After David:

(1) Psalms of Asaph (Psalms 73 Through 83, also 50).

The prophetic spirit throbs in most of the psalms ascribed to ASAPH (which see). God is pictured as a righteous Judge. He is also pictured as the Shepherd of Israel. Ps 73 holds fast to God’s righteous rule of mankind, in spite of the prosperity of the wicked. Ps 50, which is assigned by many to the time of Hosea and Isaiah, because of its powerful prophetic message, may well have come from Asaph, the contemporary of David and of Nathan. Some of the Asaph group, notably 74 and 79, belong to the period of the exile or later. The family of Asaph continued for centuries to lead in the service of song (2Ch 35:15; Neh 7:44). Inspired poets were raised up from age to age in the Asaph guild.

(2) Psalms of the Sons of Korah (Psalms 42 Through 49; Psa 84:1-12; Psa 85:1-13; Psa 87:1-7).

This family of singers was prominent in the temple-worship in the days of David and afterward. Several of the most beautiful poems in the Psalter are ascribed to members of this guild (see Psa 42:1-11; Psa 43:1-5; 45; Psa 46:1-11; 49; Psa 84:1-12). We are not to think of these poems as having been composed by a committee of the sons of Korah; no doubt each poem had an individual author, who was willing to sink his personality in the psalm that he was composing. The privileges and blessings of social worship in the sanctuary are greatly magnified in this group of psalms

(3) Psalms of Solomon (Psalms 72; Psa 127:1-5).

Even conservative critics are in doubt as to the Solomonic authorship of the two psalms ascribed to him by the titles. Perhaps assurance is not attainable in the present state of inquiry. Delitzsch well says: Under Solomon psalmody already began to decline; all the productions of the mind of that period bear the stamp of thoughtful contemplation rather than of direct feeling, for restless yearning for higher things had given place to sensuous enjoyment, national concentration to cosmopolitan expansion.

(4) The Era of Jehoshaphat.

Delitzsch and others regard the period of Jehoshaphat as one of literary productivity. Possibly Psa 75:1-10 and Psa 76:1-12 celebrate the deliverance from the great eastern invasion toward the close of Jehoshaphat’s reign.

(5) The Era of Hezekiah.

The latter half of the 8th century BC was one of literary vigor and expansion, especially in Judah. Perhaps the great deliverance from Sennacherib’s invasion is celebrated in Psa 46:1-11 and Psa 48:1-14.

(6) The Period of Jeremiah.

Ehrt and some other scholars are inclined to attribute to Jeremiah a considerable number of psalms. Among those which have been assigned to this prophet may be named Psalms 31; 35; 38; 40; 55; 69; 71. Those who deny the Davidic authorship of Ps 22 also assign this great poem to Jeremiah. Whether we are able to name definitely any psalms of Jeremiah, it seems thoroughly reasonable that he should have been the author of certain of the plaintive poems in the Psalter.

(7) During the Exile.

Ps 102 seems to have been composed during the exile. The poet pours out his complaint over the present distress, and reminds Yahweh that it is time to have pity upon Zion. Psa 137:1-9 pictures the distress of the captives by the rivers of Babylon. The fire and fervor of the poem bespeak an author personally involved in the distress. No doubt other psalms in our collection were composed during the captivity in Babylon.

(8) Post-Exilic Psalms

As specimens of the joyous hymns composed after the return from exile, we may name Psa 85:1-13 and Psa 126:1-6. Many of the liturgical hymns in the Psalter were no doubt prepared for use in the worship of the second temple. Certain recent critics have extended this class of hymns so as to include the greater part of the Psalter, but that is surely an extreme view. No doubt, the stirring times of Ezra and Nehemiah stimulated poets in Jerusalem to pour forth thanksgiving and praise to Israel’s God. Ewald taught, that the latest psalms in our collection were composed at this time.

(9) Are There Maccabean Psalms?

Calvin, assigned Psalms 44; 74 and Psa 79:1-13 to the Maccabean period. If there are Maccabean psalms, Calvin has perhaps hit upon three of them. Hitzig assigns to the Maccabean period all the psalms from 73 to 150, together with a few psalms in the earlier half of the Psalter. Among moderns, Duhm puts practically the whole Psalter in the period from 170 to 70 BC. Gesenius, Ewald, Hupfeld and Dillmann, four of the greatest names in Old Testament criticism, oppose the view that the Psalter contains Maccabean psalms. Most recent students admit the possibility of Maccabean psalms. The question may well be left open for further investigation.

III. Growth of the Psalter.

1. Division into Five Books:

In the Hebrew text as well as in the Revised Version (British and American), the Psalms are grouped into five books, as follows: Book I, Psalms 1 through 41; Book II, Psalms 42 through 72; Book III, Psalms 73 through 89; Book IV, Psalms 90 through 106; Book V, Psalms 107 through 150. It is possible that this division into five books may have been already made before the Chronicler composed his history of Judah (compare 1Ch 16:36 with Psa 106:48). At the end of Book II appears a subscript which is significant in the history of the Psalter. It is said in Psa 72:20 : The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended. It would seem from this note that the editor who appended it meant to say that in his collection he had included all the psalms of David known to him. Singularly enough, the subscript is attached to a psalm ascribed to Solomon. Psalms 51 through 70, however, lie near at hand, all of which are attributed to David. Ps 71 is anonymous, and Ps 72 might possibly be considered a prayer for Solomon. There is a further difficulty in the fact that the Second Book of Psalms opens with nine poems ascribed to the sons of Korah and to Asaph. It is a very natural conjecture that these nine psalms were at one time united with Psalms 73 through 83. With these removed, it would be possible to unite Psalms 51 through 70 with Book I. Then the subscript to Ps 72 would be a fitting close to a roll made up of psalms ascribed to David. It is impossible at this late date to trace fully and accurately the history of the formation of the Psalter.

2. Smaller Groups of Psalms:

Within the Psalter there lie certain groups of psalms which have in a measure retained the form in which they probably once circulated separately. Among these groups may be named the Psalms of Ascents (Psalms 120 through 134), the Asaph group (Psalms 73 through 83), the sons of Korah groups (Psalms 42 through 49; 84 through 87, except 86), a Mikhtam group (Psalms 56 through 60), a group praising Yahweh for His character and deeds (Psalms 93 through 100), to which Psalms 90-92 form a fitting introduction. Psalms 103 through 107 constitute another group of praise psalms, and Psalms 145 through 150 make a closing Hallelujah group.

The Psalter has had a long and varied history. No doubt the precentor of the temple choir had his own collection of hymns for public worship. Small groups of psalms may have been issued also for private use in the home. As time went on, collections were made on different organizing principles. Sometimes hymns attributed to a given author were perhaps brought into a single group. Possibly psalms of a certain type, such as Maskl and Mikhtam psalms, were gathered together in small collections. How these small groups were partly preserved and partly broken up, in the history of the formation of our present Psalter, will, perhaps, never be known.

IV. Poetry of the Psalter.

For general discussion of the form of Hebrew poetry, see POETRY. In the Psalms almost all known varieties of poetic parallelism are exemplified. Among moderns, C.A. Briggs has made extensive research into the poetical structure of the Psalms. In summing up the result of his study of the various measures employed in the Psalms, he classes 89 psalms or parts of psalms as trimeters, that is, the lines have three main accents; 22 psalms or parts he regards as tetrameters, each of the lines having four accented syllables; 25 psalms or portions are classed as pentameters, and an equal number as hexameters. He recognizes some variety of measure in certain psalms. There is coming to be agreement among Hebrew scholars that the rhythm of Hebrew poetry is largely determined by the number of accented syllables to the line. Some critics insist rigorously on perfect regularity, and therefore are compelled to resort to conjectural emendation. See POETRY, HEBREW.

Nine psalms are known as alphabetical poems, namely, Psalms 9; 10; 25; 34; 37; Psa 111:1-10; Psa 112:1-10; 119; 145. The most elaborate of these is Ps 119, which is divided into 22 sections of 8 verses each. Each letter of the Hebrew alphabet occurs 8 times in succession as the initial letter of the verses in its section.

As to strophical structure or stanza formation, there is evidence in certain psalms of such organization of the poems. The refrains with which strophes often close form an easy guide to the strophical divisions in certain psalms, such as Psa 42:1-11; Psa 43:1-5; Psa 46:1-11; 107. Among English commentators, Briggs pays most attention to strophical structure. There is some evidence of antiphonal singing in connection with the Psalter. It is thought by some that Psa 20:1-9 and Psa 21:1-13 were sung by responsive choirs. Psa 24:1-10 and 118 may each be antiphonal.

V. The Speaker in the Psalms.

Smend, in ZATW, 1888, undertook to establish thesis that the speaker in the Psalms is not an individual, but a personification of the Jewish nation or church. At first he was inclined to recognize an individual speaker in Psa 3:1-8; Psa 4:1-8; Psa 62:1-12 and 73, but one year later he interpreted these also as collective. Thus, at one stroke individual religious experience is wiped out of the Psalter, A few scholars have accepted Smend’s thesis; but the great majority of critics of every school have withheld their assent, and some of the best commentators have shown that theory is wholly untenable.

Perhaps the best monograph on the subject, for the German student, is one by Emil Balla, Das Ich der Psalmen. Balla’s thesis is that the I psalms, both in the Psalter and in the other books of the Old Testament, are always to be understood as individual, with the exception of those in which from plain data in the text another interpretation of the I is necessary. Of 100 psalms in which I occurs, Balla classes 80 as easy to interpret; in the remaining 20 there might be reasonable room for difference of opinion whether the psalm was individual or collective.

Personification is largely used in all parts of the Old Testament. There is no room for doubt that Psa 129:1-8, though using I, my and me, is the language of Israel as a people. The same is true of Psa 124:1-8. The author of Psa 126:1-6 likewise associates himself with his brethren. The author of Psa 122:1-9, however, is evidently speaking for himself individually, when he says in Psa 122:8, For my brethren and companions’ sakes, I will now say, Peace be within thee. The intelligent reader usually has no difficulty in deciding, after a careful reading of a psalm, whether the I refers to an individual Israelite or to the congregation of Israel. Sane views on this subject are important, inasmuch as Smend’s theory does violence to the strength and power of the individual religious experience of Old Testament believers. In many portions of the Old Testament, national duties are urged, and Israel is addressed as a whole. At the same time, it would be easy to exaggerate the relatively small place that individual religion occupies in the prophetic writings and in the Law. The Psalter absolutely refuses to be shut up in the molds of a rigid nationalism.

VI. The Gospel in the Psalms

Christians love the Psalter as much as the ancient Jew could possibly have done. On every page they discover elements of religious life and experience that are thoroughly Christian. In this respect the earlier dispensation came nearer to the perfection of Christian standards than in political and social organization. Along with the New Testament, the aged Christian saint desires a copy of the Psalms. He passes easily from the Gospels to the Psalter and back again without the sense of shifting from one spiritual level to another. Religious experience was enjoyed and was portrayed by the ancient psalmists so well that no Christian book in the apostolic period was composed to displace the Psalter.

1. The Soul’s Converse with God:

(1) The Psalmists Are Always Reverent in Their Approach to Deity.

Yahweh is infinitely holy (Psa 99:3, Psa 99:5, Psa 99:9). Psalms 95 through 100 are models of adoration and worship.

(2) Thirsting for God.

Psa 42:1-11 and Psa 43:1-5, which were originally one psalm, voice the longing of the individual soul for God as no other human composition has been able to express it. Psa 63:1-11 is a worthy companion psalm of yearning after God.

(3) Praising God.

More than 20 psalms have for their keynote praise to God. See especially Psa 8:1, Psa 8:9; Psa 57:7-11; Psa 71:22-24; Psa 95:1-7. The first three verses of Psalms 33; 34; 40; Psa 92:1-15 and 105 reveal a rich vocabulary of praise for stammering human lips.

(4) Joy in God’s House.

Psa 84:1-12 and Psa 122:1-9 are classic hymns expressive of joy in public worship in the sanctuary. Religious patriotism has never received a more striking expression than is found in Psa 137:5 f.

(5) Practicing the Presence of God.

In Psalms 91 and Psa 23:1-6 the worshipping saint delights his soul with the sense of God’s protecting presence. The Shepherd, tender and true, is ever present to shield and to comfort. The shadow of the Almighty is over the saint who dwells in the secret place of the Most High.

(6) God in Nature.

The Psalmist did not go through Nature up to Nature’s God; for he found God immanent in all things. He heard God’s voice in the thunder; felt His breath in the twilight breeze; saw the gleam of His sword in the lightning’s flash, and recognized His hand in every provision for the wants of man and the lower animals. See Ps 104, Hymn of Creation; Psa 29:1-11, Yahweh, the God of the storm; and the first half of Psa 19:1-14, the heavens are telling.

(7) Love for God’s Word.

Ps 119 is the classic description of the beauty and power and helpfulness of the Word of God. The second half of Psa 19:1-14 is also a gem. Ps 119 was happily named by one of the older commentators a holy alphabet for Zion’s scholars. The Psalmist sings the glories of God’s Word as a lamp to guide, as a spring of comfort, and as a fountain of hope.

(8) God’s Care of All Things.

Faith in Divine Providence – both general and special – was a cardinal doctrine with the psalmists; yea more, the very heart of their religion. Psa 65:1-13 sings of God’s goodness in sunshine and shower, which clothes the meadows with waving grain. The river of God is always full of water. Psa 121:1-8, Yahweh thy Keeper, was read by David Livingstone at family worship on the morning when he left home to go out to Africa as a missionary.

(9) God Our Refuge.

The psalmists were fond of the figure of taking refuge in God. Yahweh was to them a rock of refuge, a stronghold, a high tower, an impregnable fortress. Psa 46:1-11; Psa 61:1-8 and Psa 62:1-12 exalt God as the refuge of His saints. His help is always easy to find. The might and wisdom of God do not overwhelm the inspired singers, but become a theme of devout and joyous contemplation.

Our Lord Jesus found in the Psalms prophecies concerning Himself (Luk 24:44-47).

2. The Messiah:

(1) The Suffering Saviour.

While hanging on the cross, the mind of our Lord turned to the Psalter. He voiced the terrible anguish of His soul in the opening words of Ps 22, and breathed out His spirit at the end with the trustful words of Psa 31:5. He also invited the fulfillment of a Messianic prediction in Psa 69:21 by saying, I thirst. Isa and the Psalms did not fail Him in the hour of His shame, when reproach broke His heart, and there was none to comfort Him. Only Isa 52:13 through 53:12 surpasses Ps 22 as a picture of Calvary and an interpretation of the significance of the cross. Whether Ps 22 is a direct prophecy of Christ, or only a typically Messianic psalm, is in dispute. Every sentence can be applied to Jesus without straining its meaning. If David or some other sufferer took up his harp to sing of his own sorrows, the Spirit of God guided him to describe those of a greater.

Rationalistic critics insist that to apply part of a psalm to David and part to Christ introduces confusion. They ridicule theory of a double sense, and contend that the language refers to the Psalmist and to him alone, and that the application of certain verses to our Lord Jesus is only by way of accommodation. This theory ignores the presence and activity of the Holy Spirit altogether; and when men talk of psychological impossibilities, they may be talking nonsense; for who of us can us can understand fully the psychological experience of men while receiving revelations from God? The real author of inspired prophecies is the Holy Spirit. His meaning is that which the reverent interpreter most delights to find; and we have evidence that the Old Testament writers did not fully comprehend their own predictions concerning Christ (1Pe 1:10-12). We ought not to be surprised that we should be unable to explain fully the method of the Holy Spirit’s activity in guiding the thought of prophets and psalmists in their predictions of the sufferings of Christ and the glories that should follow them.

(2) The Conquering King.

Psa 2:1-12 and Psa 110:1-7 (with which Ps 72 may be compared) describe the Messiah as Yahweh’s Son, a mighty. Conqueror, who shall overwhelm all foes and reign supported by Yahweh. Some will oppose the Messiah, and so perish; others will enter His army as volunteers, and in the end will enjoy the fruits of victory. It is better to sit on His throne than to be His footstool.

(3) The Growing Kingdom.

There is room in the earth for no god other than Yahweh, the Creator and Redeemer of mankind. Psa 47:1-9; Psa 67:1-7; 96 through 100 and Psa 117:1-2 are proofs of the glorious missionary outlook of the Psalter. All nations are exhorted to forsake idols and worship Yahweh. Psa 47:1-9 closes with a picture of the whole world united in the worship of the God of Israel. Psa 67:1-7 is a bugle call to all nations to unite in the worship of the true God. Psalms 96 through 100 paint the character of Yahweh as a basis of appeal to all nations to turn from idols and worship the God of Abraham. Psa 96:1-13 and Psa 98:1-9 exalt His righteousness; Psa 97:1-12 His power and dominion; Psa 99:1-9 His holiness and His fidelity to Israel, while Psa 100:1-5 tells of His goodness. Idols will finally go down before a God worthy of men’s reverence and love.

3. Problem of Sin:

The Psalter deals with man as a sinner. Seven of the best known poems in the collection are so charged with a sense of sin and of its deadly fruits that they have been known for centuries as the Penitential Psalms (Psa 6:1-10; Psa 32:1-11; 38; 51; 102; Psa 130:1-8; Psa 143:1-12). Besides these poems of penitence and confession, there are many passages elsewhere in the Psalter which depict the sinfulness of men. And yet there are assertions of personal innocence and righteousness in the Psalter that sound like the claims of self-righteous persons (Psa 7:3-9; Psa 17:1-5; Psa 18:20-24; Psa 35:11-17; Psa 44:17-22). The psalmists do not mean to affirm that they are sinless before God, but rather that they are righteous in comparison with their foes who are seeking to destroy them. Sometimes they plead for mercy in the same context. The honest exegete does not find the Pharisaic temper in these noble hymns, though he is quite willing to admit that the Christian cannot well employ some of the expressions concerning his own experiences. Jesus requires a humility deeper than that which was attained in Old Testament times.

(1) Confessing Sin.

(a) Individual confession: Psa 32:1-11 and 51 are notable examples of individual confession. The cries of the penitent in Ps 51 have been repeated by thousands on bended knee as the best expression of their own sense of sin and yearning for forgiveness. (b) National confession (see especially 78; Psa 95:1-11and 106). Ps 105 celebrates the praises of Yahweh for His unfailing kindness to Israel; Ps 106 tells the tale of Israel’s repeated rebellion.

(2) Seeking Forgiveness.

Ps 51 is the penitent’s cry for mercy. Never did the soul of man plead more powerfully for forgiveness. God cannot despise a heart broken and crushed with the sense of sin and pleading like a lost child for home and mother.

(3) Conquering Sin.

Psa 130:1-8 begins with a cry out of the depths and ends with a note of joy over redemption from sin. The plenteous redemption of which the poet speaks includes triumph over sin in one’s heart and life. The cries of the Old Testament saints for victory over sin were not unheeded (Psa 139:23 f; Psa 19:13; Psa 119:133). The author of Psa 84:1-12 truthfully depicts the life of Yahweh’s worshippers, They go from strength to strength. Victory over sin is sure in the end.

4. Wrestling with Doubts:

The ancient Hebrew seems to have had no temptation to atheism or pantheism. The author of Ecclesiastes felt the pull of agnosticism and materialism (Ecc 3:19-21; Ecc 9:2-10), but in the end he rejected both (Ecc 12:7, Ecc 12:13 f). The ancient Hebrew found in the world about him one difficulty which seemed almost insuperable. He believed in the wisdom and power and justice of God. How then could it be possible, in a world over which a wise and just God presides, that the wicked should prosper and the righteous suffer? This is the question which is hotly debated by Job and his three friends. A partial solution of the difficulty may be seen in Ps 37, theme of which is ‘the brevity of godless prosperity, and the certainty that well-doing will lead to well-being.’ A better solution is attained in Ps 73, which depicts God’s attitude toward the wicked and toward the righteous. The wicked will be suddenly overthrown, while the righteous will live forever in the enjoyment of communion with God. Not even death can sever him from God. The fleeting pleasures of proud scoffers pale into insignificance before the glories of everlasting fellowship with God.

5. Out of the Depths:

(1) Out of the depths of persecution and slander the author of Ps 31 climbed into his refuge, as he exclaimed, In the covert of thy presence wilt thou hide them from the plottings of man: Thou wilt keep them secretly in a pavilion from the strife of tongues. (2) Ps 77 is a stairway out of depths of suspense and the anxiety. The experience of the author well illustrates Maclaren’s epigram, If out of the depths we cry, we shall cry ourselves out of the depths. (3) The author of Ps 116 looked into the jaws of death. Perhaps no other psalm has so much to say of physical death. The singer is filled with gratitude as he reviews the deadly peril from which Yahweh has saved him. (4) Ps 88 is unique, because it is sad and plaintive from beginning to end. The singer has long cried for deliverance from bodily weakness and from loneliness. (5) Out of the depths of disaster and defeat the authors of Psa 60:1-12; 74; Psa 79:1-13 and 89 cry to God. The Babylonian exile was a sore trial to patriotic Jews. They mourned over the destruction of their beautiful temple and the holy city in which their fathers had worshipped. The author of Psa 60:1-12 closes with hope and confidence (Psa 60:12).

6. Ethical Ideals:

Unquestionably in the Psalms we reach the high-water mark of Old Testament practical piety, the best that, the Old Testament can exhibit of heart-religion.

(1) What Sort of Man, Then, Would the Psalms Acclaim as Good?

Psa 1:1-6 opens with a vivid contrast between the righteous and the wicked. Psa 15:1-5 is the most complete description of a good man to be found in the Psalter. The picture is drawn in answer to the question, What sort of man will Yahweh receive as an acceptable worshipper? The morality of the Bible is rooted in religion, and the religion of the Bible blossoms and bears fruit in the highest ethics known to man. Psa 131:1-3 makes humility a prime quality in real goodness. Psa 133:1-3 magnifies the spirit of brotherly love. The social virtues had a large place in the psalmists’ ideals of goodness. Humility and brotherly love are a guaranty of peace in the home, the church and the nation. Psa 24:4 is a compend of ethics in a single sentence.

(2) The Ethics of Speech.

Even a casual reading of the Psalms must impress one with the fact that the psalmists felt very keenly the lies and slanders and boastings of the wicked. Stirred with righteous indignation, they call upon God to awake and confront the blatant foes of truth and righteousness (see especially Psa 12:1-8; Psa 52:1-9 and Psa 120:1-7).

(3) Ministering to the Needy.

Bible readers are familiar with the ideal of the good man in Job 29:12-16; Job 31:13-22. Psa 82:1-8 is a plea for justice. Venal judges are one day to confront the great Judge. Men need fair play first. Perhaps there will then be no occasion for the exercise of almsgiving. Psa 41:1-13 is a plea for kindness. The Christian reader is reminded of the words of Jesus, Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. The Ideal Ruler is both just and beneficent (Psa 72:2, Psa 72:12-14).

7. Praying Against the Wicked:

To be a good lover one must know how to hate. The excitement of battle throbs in many of the Psalms. The enemies of righteousness are victorious and defiant. Their taunts drive the psalmists to importunate prayer. Yahweh’s honor is at stake and His cause in peril. More than 20 psalms contain prayer for the defeat and overthrow of the wicked. Warlike imagery of the boldest kind is found in many of the imprecatory psalms. To the Christian reader some of the curses pronounced against the wicked are startling and painful. Many are led to wonder how such imprecations ever found a place in the Bible. The most severe curses are found in Psalms 35; 69 and 109. Maclaren’s words are well worth reading as an introduction to Ps 109: For no private injuries, or for those only in so far as the suffering singer is a member of the community which represents God’s cause, does he ask the descent of God’s vengeance, but for the insults and hurts inflicted on righteousness. The form of these maledictions belongs to a lower stage of revelation; the substance of them, considered as passionate desires for the destruction of evil, burning zeal for the triumph of truth, which is God’s cause, and unquenchable faith that He is just, is a part of Christian perfection. Two remarks may be made, as suggestions to the student of the Psalter: (1) We ought to study the psalms of imprecation in the light of their origin. They are poetry and not prose; and De Witt reminds us that the language of oriental poetry is that of exaggerated passion. Some of these imprecations pulse with the throb of actual battle. Swords are drawn, and blood is flowing. The champion of Yahweh’s people prays for the overthrow of His foes. The enemies cursed are men who break every moral law and defy God. The Psalmist identifies himself with Yahweh’s cause. Do not I hate them, O Yahweh, that hate thee? And am not I grieved with those that rise up against thee? I hate them with perfect hatred: They are become mine enemies (Psa 139:21 f). Thus the psalmists pray with God’s glory in view. (2) We ought to use the imprecatory psalms in the light of our Lord’s teaching. We cannot pronounce curses on our personal enemies. This heavenly artillery may be turned upon the saloon, the brothel and the gambling hell, though we must not forget to pray for the conversion of the persons who are engaged in these lines of business.

8. The Future Life:

If a man die, shall he live again? What answer do the Psalms give to Job’s cry for light? There are expressions in the Psalter which seem to forbid hope of a blessed immortality (Psa 6:5; Psa 30:9; Psa 39:13; Psa 115:17). The psalmists are tempted to fear that fellowship with God would cease at death. Let this fact, however, be borne in mind, that not one of the poets or prophets of Israel settled down to a final denial of immortality. Some of them had moments of joyous assurance of a blessed life of fellowship with God in the world to come. Life everlasting in the presence of Yahweh is the prospect with which the author of Psa 16:1-11 refreshes himself (Psa 16:8-11). The vision of God’s face after the sleep of death is better than worldly prosperity (Psa 17:13-15). The author of Ps 73 wins rest for his distressed mind in the assurance of a fellowship with God that cannot be broken (Psa 73:23-26). God will finally take the singer to Himself. It has been well said that Ps 49 registers the high-water mark of Old Testament faith in a future life. Death becomes the shepherd of the wicked who trusted in riches, while God redeems the righteous from the power of Sheol and takes the believing soul to Himself.

Literature.

One of the most elaborate and informing articles on the history of the exposition of the Psalms is found in the Introduction to Delitzsch’s Commentary (pp. 64-87, English translation). Among the Fathers, Jerome, Chrysostom and Augustine are most helpful. Among the Reformers, Calvin, the prince of expositors, is most valuable. Among modern commentators, Ewald and Delitzsch are scholarly and sane. Their commentaries are accessible in English translation Hupfeld is strong in grammatical exegesis. Baethgen (1904) is very thorough. Among recent English and American commentators, the most helpful are Perowne (6th edition, 1866), Maclaren in Expositor’s Bible (1890-92), and Kirkpatrick in Cambridge Bible (1893-95). Briggs in ICC (1906) is learned; Davison, New Century Bible, is bright and attractive. Spurgeon, Treasury of David, is a valuable compilation, chiefly from the Puritan divines. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms (1888) and The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter (1891), is quite radical in his critical views. Binnie, The Psalms: Their Origin, Teachings and Use (1886), is a fine introduction to the Psalter. Robertson, The Poetry and Religion of the Psalms (1898), constructs an able argument against recent radical views.

Fuente: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

Psalms, Book of

This collection of sacred poetry received its name in consequence of the lyrical character of the pieces of which it consists, as intended to be sung to stringed and other instruments of music.

In Psa 72:20 we find all the preceding compositions (Psalms 1-72) styled Prayers of David, because many of them are strictly prayers, and all are pervaded by the spirit and tone of supplication.

All the Psalms, except thirty-four, bear superscriptions. The authority of the titles is a matter of doubt. By most of the ancient critics they were considered genuine, and of equal authority with the Psalms themselves, while most of the moderns reject them wholly or in part. It deserves to be noticed, however, that they are received by Tholuck and Hengstenberg in their works on the Psalms. Of the antiquity of the inscriptions there can be no question, for they are found in the Septuagint. They are supposed to be even much older than this version, since they were no longer intelligible to the translator, who often makes no sense of them.

A good deal may be plausibly said both for and against the authority of these titles, but on the whole it seems the part of sober criticism to receive the titles as historically valid, except when we find strong internal evidence against them.

The design of these inscriptions is to specify either the author, or the chief singer, or the historical subject or occasion, or the use, or the style of poetry, or the instrument and style of music. Some titles simply designate the author, as in Psalms 25, while others specify several of the above particulars, as in Psalms 51. The longest and fullest title of all is prefixed to Psalms 60, where we have the author, the chief musician (not by name), the historical occasion (comp. 2 Samuel 8), the use or design, the style of poetry, and the instrument or style of music. It is confessedly very difficult, if not impossible, to explain all the terms employed in the inscriptions and hence critics have differed exceedingly in their conjectures. The difficulty, arising no doubt from ignorance of the Temple music, was felt, it would seem, as early as the age of the Sept.; and it was felt so much by the translators of our Authorized Version, that they generally retained the Hebrew words, even though Luther had set the example of translating them to the best of his ability.

Of the terms left untranslated or obscure in our Bible, it may be well to offer some explanation in this place, taking them in alphabetical order for the sake of convenience.

Aijeleth shahar, ‘hind of the morning,’ i.e. the sun, or the dawn of day. This occurs only in Psalms 22, where we may best take it to designate a song, perhaps commencing with these words, or bearing this name, to the melody of which the psalm was to be sung.

Alamoth, Psalms 46, probably signifies ‘virgins,’ and hence denotes music for female voices, or the treble.

Al-taschith, ‘destroy thou not,’ is found over Psalms 57, 58, 59, 75, and signifies, by general consent, some well-known ode beginning with the expression, to the tune of which these compositions were to be sung.

Degrees appears over fifteen Psalms (Psalms 120-134), called Songs of Degrees, and has been explained in various ways, of which the following are the chief. 1. The ancients understood by it stairs or steps; and in accordance with this, Jewish writers relate that these Psalms were sung on fifteen steps, leading from the court of Israel to the court of the women. This explanation is now exploded. 2. Luther, whom Tholuck is inclined to follow, renders the title a song in the higher choir, supposing the Psalms to have been sung from an elevated place or ascent, or with elevated voice. 3. Gesenius and De Wette think the name refers to a peculiar rhythm in these songs, by which the sense advances by degrees, and so ascends from clause to clause. 4. According to the most prevalent and probable opinion, the title signifies song of the ascents, or pilgrim song, meaning a song composed for, or sung during the journeyings of the people up to Jerusalem, whether as they returned from Babylon, or as they statedly repaired to the national solemnities. Journeys to Jerusalem are generally spoken of as ascents, on account of the elevated situation of the city and temple (see Ezr 7:9, and especially Psa 122:4). This explanation of the name is favored by the brevity and the contents of these songs.

Gittith appears over Psalms 8, 81, 84, and is of very uncertain meaning, though not improbably it signifies an instrument or tune brought from the city of Gath. In the opinion of not a few the word denotes either an instrument or a melody used in the vintage.

Higgaion is found over Psa 9:16, and probably means either musical sound, according to the opinion of most, or meditation, according to Tholuck and Hengstenberg.

Jeduthun is found over Psalms 39, 62, 77, and is generally taken for the name of choristers descended from Jeduthun, of whom we read in 1Ch 25:1; 1Ch 25:3, as one of David’s three chief musicians or leaders of the Temple music.

Jonath-elem-rechokim, ‘the mute dove among strangers,’ found only over Psalms 56, may well de-note the subject of the song, viz., David himself, ‘when the Philistines took him in Gath;’ or it is the name or commencement of an ode to the air of which this psalm was sung.

Leannoth, in the title of Psalms 88, means to sing, denoting that it was to be sung in the way described.

Mahalath occurs in Psalms 53, 88, and denotes, according to some, a sort of flute; according to Gesenius, in his last edition of his Thesaurus, a lute; but in the opinion of Frst, a tune, named from the first word of some popular song. Upon Mahalath, Leannoth, Psalms 88, is accordingly a direction to chant it to the instrument or tune called mahalath.

Maschil is found in the title of thirteen psalms. According to Gesenius, De Wette, and others, it means a poem, so called either for its skillful composition or for its wise and pious strain. The common interpretation, which Tholuck and Hengstenberg follow, makes it a didactic poem.

Michiam is prefixed to Psalms 16, 56, 60, and is subject to many conjectures. But the true explanation is most likely that offered by Gesenius, De Wette, Rosenmller, and Tholuck, who hold it to signify a ‘writing’ or ‘poem.’

Muth-labben (Psalms 9) presents a perfect riddle, owing to the various readings of MSS., and the contradictory conjectures of the learned. Some explain it as the subject or occasion of the song, but most refer it to the music. Gesenius, in his last edition, renders itwith virgins’ voice for the boys, i.e. to be sung by a choir of boys in the treble.

Neginoth, Psalms 4 and four others. This name clearly denotes ‘stringed instruments’ in general.

Nehiloth (Psalms 5) denotes ‘pipes’ or ‘flutes.’

Selah is found seventy-three times in the Psalms, generally at the end of a sentence or paragraph; but in Psa 55:19; Psa 57:3 it stands in the middle of the verse. While most authors have agreed in considering this word as somehow relating to the music, their conjectures about its precise meaning have varied greatly. But at present these two opinions chiefly obtain: first, that it signifies a raising of the voice or music; or, second, a pause in the singing. Probably selah was used to direct the singer to be silent, or to pause a little, while the instruments played an interlude or symphony. In Psa 9:16 it occurs in the expression higgaion selah, which Gesenius, with much probability, renders instrumental music, pause, i.e. let the instruments strike up a symphony, and let the singer pause. By Tholuck and Hengstenberg, however, the two words are rendered meditation, pause, i.e. let the singer meditate or reflect while the music stops.

Sheminith (Psalms 6, 12) means properly eighth, and denotes either, as some think, an instrument with eight chords, or, more likely, music in the lower notes, or bass.

Shiggaion (Psalms 7) denotes, according to Gesenius and Frst, a song or hymn; but Ewald and Hengstenberg understand by it ‘error or wandering,’ supposing that the aberrations of the wicked are the subject of the Psalm. According to Rosenmller, De Wette, and Tholuck, it means a ‘plaintive song or elegy.’

Shushan (Psalms 60), and in plural shoshannim (Psalms 45, 49, 80). This word commonly signifies lily, and probably denotes either an instrument bearing some resemblance to a lily (perhaps cymbal), or a melody named lily for its pleasantness.

Respecting the authors of the Psalms, many of the ancients, both Jews and Christians, maintained that they were all written by David: which is one of the most striking proofs of their uncritical judgment. The titles and the contents of the Psalms most clearly show that they were composed at different and remote periods, by several poets, of whom David was only the largest and most eminent contributor. According to the inscriptions we have the following list of authors:

1. David, ‘the sweet Psalmist of Israel’ (2Sa 23:1). To him are ascribed seventy-three Psalms in the Hebrew text; and at least eleven others in the Sept., namely, Psalms 33, 43, 91, 94-99, 104, 137; to which may be added Psalms 10, as it forms part of Psalms 9 in that version. From what has been advanced above respecting the authority of the titles, it is obviously injudicious to maintain that David composed all that have his name prefixed in the Hebrew, or to suppose that he did not compose some of the eleven ascribed to him in the Sept., and of the others which stand without any author’s name at all. We cannot feel sure that Psalms 139 is David’s, for its Chaldaisms (Psa 139:2; Psa 139:8; Psa 139:16-17) betray a later age; and Psalms 122 can scarcely be his, for its style resembles the later Hebrew, and its description of Jerusalem can hardly apply to David’s time. Besides, it is worthy of notice that the Sept. gives this and the other Songs of Degrees without specifying the author. Of those which the Sept. ascribes to David, it is not improbable that Psalms 99, 104 are really his; and of those which bear no name in either text, at least Psalms 2 appears to be David’s.

David’s compositions are generally distinguished by sweetness, softness, and grace; but sometimes, as in Psalms 18, they exhibit the sublime. His prevailing strain is plaintive, owing to his multiplied and sore trials, both before and after his occupation of the throne. The celebrated singers who were contemporaries of David were men, like himself, moved by the divine afflatus not only to excel in music, but also to indite hallowed poetry. Of these Psalmists the names of several are preserved in the titles.

2. Asaph is named as the author of twelve Psalms, viz., Psalms 50, 73-83. He was one of David’s chief musicians [ASAPH]. All the poems bearing his name cannot be his; for in Psalms 74, 79, , 80, there are manifest allusions to very late events in the history of Israel. Asaph appears from Psalms 50, 73, , 78, to have been the greatest master of didactic poetry, excelling alike in sentiment and in diction.

3. The sons of Korah was another family of choristers (see Korah, at the end), to whom eleven of the most beautiful Psalms are ascribed.

4. Heman was another of David’s chief singers (1Ch 15:19): he is called the Ezrahite, as being descended from some Ezrah, who appears to have been a descendant of Korah: at least Heman is reckoned a Kohathite (1Ch 6:33-38), and was therefore probably a Korahite for the Kohathites were continued and counted in the line of Korah; see 1Ch 6:22; 1Ch 6:37-38 [HEMAN]. Thus Heman was both an Ezrahite and of the sons of Korah. That Psalms 88 was written by him is not unlikely, though many question it.

5. Ethan is reputed the author of Psalms 89. He is doubtless the Levite of Merari’s family whom David made chief musician along with Asaph and Heman (1Ch 6:44; 1Ch 25:1; 1Ch 25:6). The Psalm could not, however, be composed by him, for it plainly alludes (Psa 89:38-44) to the downfall of the kingdom.

6. Solomon is given as the author of Psalms 72, 127 and there is no decided internal evidence to the contrary, though most consider him to be the subject and not the author of Psalms 72.

7. Moses is reputed the writer of Psalms 90 and there is no strong reason to doubt the tradition.

Jeduthun is sometimes, without just ground, held to be named as the author of Psalms 39. Many conjectures have been formed respecting other writers, especially of the anonymous psalms. The Septuagint seemingly gives, as authors, Jeremiah, (Psalms 137), and Haggai and Zechariah (Psalms 138). But these conjectures are too uncertain to call for further notice in this place.

The dates of the Psalms, as must be obvious from what has been stated respecting the authors, are very various, ranging from the time of Moses to that of the Captivitya period of nearly 1000 years.

The Psalter is divided in the Hebrew into five books, and also in the Septuagint version, which proves the division to be older than B.C. 200.

The first book (Psalms 1-41) consists wholly of David’s songs, his name being prefixed to all except Psalms 1, 2, 10, , 33; and it is evidently the first collection, having been possibly made in the time of Hezekiah, who is known to have ordered a collection of Solomon’s proverbs (Pro 25:1), and to have commanded the Levites to sing the words of David (2Ch 29:30).

The second book (Psalms 42-72) consists mainly of pieces by the sons of Korah (Psalms 42-49), and by David (Psalms 51-65), which may have been separate minor collections. It is not likely that this collection was made till the period of the Captivity, if interpreters are right in referring Psalms 44 to the days of Jeremiah.

The third book (Psalms 73-89) consists chiefly of Asaph’s psalms, but comprises apparently two smaller collections, the one Asaphitic (Psalms 73-83), the other mostly Korahitic (Psalms 84-139). The collector of this book had no intention to bring together songs written by David, and therefore he put the above notice at the end of the second book. The date of this collection must be as late as the return from Babylon, for Psalms 85 implies as much.

The fourth book (Psalms 90-106) and the fifth (Psalms 107-150) are made up chiefly of anonymous liturgic pieces, many of which were composed for the service of the second temple. In the last book we have the Songs of Degrees (Psalms 120-134), which seem to have been originally a separate collection.

The inspiration and canonical authority of the Psalms are established by the most abundant and convincing evidence. They never were, and never can be, rejected, except by impious impugners of all divine revelation. Not to mention other ancient testimonies, we find complete evidence in the New Testament, where the book is quoted or referred to as divine by Christ and his apostles at least seventy times. No other writing is so frequently cited; Isaiah, the next in the scale of quotation, being cited only about fifty-five times.

Fuente: Popular Cyclopedia Biblical Literature

Psalms, Book of

This book has been called the heart of the Bible. It expresses sentiments produced by the Spirit of Christ, whether of prayer, sorrow, confession, or praise, in the hearts of God’s people, in which the ways of God are developed, and become known, with their blessed issue, to the faithful. The book is distinctly prophetic in character, the period covered by the language of the Psalms extending from the rejection of Christ (Psa 2; Act 4:25-28) to the Hallelujahs consequent on the establishment of the kingdom. The writers do not merely relate what others did and felt, but expressed what was passing through their own souls. And yet their language is not simply what they felt, but that of the Spirit of Christ that spoke in them, as taking part in the afflictions, the griefs, and the joys of God’s people in every phase of their experience. This accounts for Christ being found throughout the Psalms: some refer exclusively to Him, as Psa 22; in others (though the language is that of the remnant of His people), Christ takes His place with them, making their sufferings His sufferings, and their sorrows His sorrows. In no part of scripture is the inner life of the Lord Jesus disclosed as in the Psalms. The Psalms may be called ‘the manual of the earthly choir.’ They commence with “Blessed is the man ,” and end with “Praise ye Jehovah.” Man is blessed on earth, and Jehovah is praised from earth.

1Ch 16 and 2 Sam. 22 are examples of the immediate occasions on which psalms were composed, and in the headings of the psalms other instances are mentioned; yet these things in no way hinder the Spirit of God from leading the psalmist to utter things that would be fully accomplished in Christ alone. David said, “The Spirit of Jehovah spake by me, and his word was in my tongue.” 2Sa 23:1-2. Great pains have been taken sometimes to arrange the psalms in a supposed chronological order, but the effect of this is to spoil the whole, for God has Himself ordered their arrangement, and in many places the beauty of the order can be seen.

It must not be forgotten that the O.T. prophets did not grasp what “the Spirit of Christ which was in them did signify.” 1Pe 1:11. David’s experience could not have caused him to indite Psa 22. But being a prophet, it was clearly the Spirit of Christ that was in him that furnished words which would be uttered by Christ on the cross. We have in it a plain instance of a prophetic psalm, and doubtless the spirit of prophecy runs through all.

If this is the main characteristic of the Psalms, they have an aspect entirely different from that in which the book is regarded by many, namely, as a book of Christian experience. The piety that the Psalms breathe is always edifying, and the deep confidence in God expressed in them under trial and sorrow has cheered the heart of God’s saints at all times. These holy experiences are to be preserved and cherished; but who has not felt the difficulty of calling on God to destroy his enemies? What Christian can take up as his own language such a sentence as “Happy shall he be that taketh and dasheth thy little ones against the stones.” Psa 137:9. And how can such a sentence be spiritualised? But such appeals are intelligible in regard to a future day, when, apostasy being universal and opposition to God open and avowed, the destruction of His enemies is the only way of deliverance for His people.

Unless the difference of the spirit of the Psalms from that of Christianity be observed, the full light of redemption and of the place of the Christian in Christ is not seen, and the reader is apt to be detained in a legal state. His progress is hindered, and he does not understand the Psalms, nor enter into the gracious sympathies of Christ in their true application. When the attitude of the Jews at the time the Lord was here is remembered, and their bitter opposition to their Messiah, which exists to this day, light is thrown upon their feelings when, under tribulation, their eyes will be opened to see that it was indeed their Messiah that they crucified. Great too will be their persecution from without, from which God will deliver a remnant and bring them into blessing. Into all their sorrows Christ enters, and He suffers in sympathy with them. All these things, and the experiences through which they will pass, are found in the Psalms. But these experiences are not properly those of the Christian.

As the Psalms form a part of holy scripture, their true place and bearing must be seen before they can be rightly interpreted. The writers were not Christians, and could not express christian experience; though their piety, their confidence in God , and the spirit of praise may often be the language of a Christian, and even put a Christian to shame. Christ must be looked for everywhere, either in what He personally passed through, or in His sympathy with His people Israel, which can only end in His bringing them into full blessing on earth, when He will be hailed as “Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, Father of Eternity, Prince of Peace.”

The Book of Psalms is in the Hebrew divided into five books, each of which has its own prophetic characteristics. The more these are grasped, the clearer it becomes that God has watched over the order of the psalms. Each book ends with an ascription of praise or doxology.

BOOK 1 extends to the end of Psa 41, and is occupied with the state of the Jewish remnant of the future (Judah), before they are driven out of Jerusalem: cf. Mat 24:16. Christ is largely identified with this. The book recalls much of the personal history of the Lord, when He was here, though the bearing of it is future. The light of resurrection dawns for the faithful in this book, Christ having gone through death into fulness of joy at God’s right hand: compare Rev 6:11.

In Psa 2 (and Psa 1 and Psa 2 may be said to be introductory to the whole) we have Christ rejected by Jew and Gentile, yet set as King in Zion, and declared to be the Son of God, having the earth for His possession, and judging His enemies, the nations. In a wider sense Psalms 1 to 8 are introductory; from Psa 3 to Psa 7 giving the principles that follow on the rejection of Christ in Psa 1 and Psa 2, and Psa 8 giving His exaltation as Son of man , ending with “O Jehovah our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth.” Psa 16 brings in the personal excellence of Christ and His association with the ‘excellent in the earth.’

In some places the appropriateness of the sequence of the psalms, as already remarked, is very apparent, as for instance Psalms 22, 23, 24. Psa 22 pictures the sufferings of Christ in the accomplishing of redemption. In Psa 23 in consequence of redemption being accomplished, the Lord becomes the Shepherd and takes care of the sheep. In Psa 24 is celebrated the entry of the King of glory through the everlasting gates. In Psa 40 there comes forth from God One divinely perfect – the true ark of the covenant – who was competent to bring into effect the will of God in all its extent; and at the same time able (by the offering of Himself) to take away the whole system of sacrifices, in which God had found no pleasure.

BOOK 2 embraces Psa 42 to the end of Psa 72. The remnant are here viewed as outside Jerusalem, and the city given up to wickedness; but Israel has to be brought back. In Book 1 the name of Jehovah is used all through, but now God is addressed as such: the faithful are cast more entirely on what God is in His own nature and character, when they can no longer approach where Jehovah has put His name: Antichrist prevails there. In Psa 45 Messiah is introduced, and the remnant celebrate with gladness what God is for His people. Though resurrection may be dimly seen by the faithful in the circumstances of this book, yet what is before them is the restoration of Zion (Psa 45 – Psa 48 and Psa 69:35). God shines out of Zion (Psa 50:2). Psa 69, Psa 70, and Psa 71 speak of the humiliation of the remnant, and Christ with them: some of the verses clearly point to Christ personally, as in the reference to the gall and the vinegar. Psa 69:21. At the close of this book the Psalmist in the doxology arrives at, “Let the whole earth be filled with his glory. Amen and Amen.” To which he adds, “The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended.”

Psa 68 shows that God’s strength and excellency for Israel was of old in the heavens. The heavens are the seat both of blessing (Psa 68:9; Psa 68:18) and of rule (Psa 68:4; Psa 68:32-35). Hence Christ is seen as ascended up on high.

BOOK 3 contains Psa 73 to the end of Psa 89. It widens out to the restoration of Israel as a nation, whose general interests are in view. The sanctuary is prominent. The thought is not so much limited, as the previous books, to the Jewish remnant, though faithful ones are spoken of. In this book we have but one psalm with David’s name as writer. They are mostly ‘for, or of ‘ Asaph and the sons of Korah – Levites. In Psa 88 is the bitter cry of a soul expressive of being subject under a broken law to the wrath of God; and in Psa 89 praise is rendered for Jehovah’s unchangeable covenant with David, extending to the Holy One of Israel as their King. It celebrates the sure mercies of David, though David’s house had utterly failed and was cast down.

BOOK 4 embraces Psa 90 to the end of Psa 106. It begins with a psalm of Moses. In this section the eternity of Elohim, Israel’s Adonai, is seen to have been at all times their dwelling place, as declared in the first verse. It is the answer to the end of Psa 89: comp. also Psa 102:23-28 with Psa 89:44-45. In Psa 91 Messiah takes His place with Israel; and in Psa 94 to Psa 100 Jehovah comes into the world to establish the kingdom in glory and divine order. It is the introduction of the First-begotten into the earth, announced by the cry of the remnant.

BOOK 5 contains Psa 107 to the end of Psa 150. This book gives the general results of the government of God. The restoration of Israel amid dangers and difficulties is alluded to; the exaltation of Messiah to God’s right hand till His enemies are made His footstool; God’s ways with Israel; their whole condition, and the principles on which they stand with God, His law being written in their hearts; ending with full and continued praise after the destruction of their enemies, in which they have part with God. For Songs of Degrees, see DEGREES.

Fuente: Concise Bible Dictionary