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Ship

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SHIP

The ships of the ancients were very imperfect in comparison with modern ones. Navigators crept carefully along the shores, from one headland or prominent point to another, making a harbor if practicable every night; and when out of sight of land, being ignorant of the compass and quadrant, they guided their course by the sun and certain stars. Even in St. Paul’s time, vessels passing from Palestine to Italy, sometimes wintered on the way!Mal 27:12 28:11. The ancient ships were in general small, though a few large ships are on record. They were often highly ornamented both at the prow and the stern; and the figurehead or “sign,” by which the vessel was known, was sometimes an image of its tutelar divinity. They were usually propelled by oars often in several “banks” or rows one above another, as well as by sails. In war, the galley tried to pierce and run down its antagonist.The Phoenicians were celebrated for their ships and their extensive commerce, as appears from Ezekiel’s description, Eze 27:1-36, as well as from numerous ancient historians. Though Joppa and in Christ’s time Caesarea were Jewish ports, 2Ch 2:18 Jon 1:3, yet the Jews were never a maritime people, and most of their foreign navigation would appear to have been carried on by the aid of Phoenicians, 1Ki 9:26 10:22 22:49,50. Paul’s graphic and faithful description of his voyage and shipwreck in Mal 27:1-44, discloses many of the peculiarities of ancient navigation. For the “ship of Tarshish,” see TARSHISH.

Fuente: American Tract Society Bible Dictionary

Ship

(, occurring in Act 27:41 only, a vessel of considerable size; cf. , ship, boat, sailing vessel, Act 20:13; Act 20:38; Act 21:2-3; Act 21:6; Act 27:2 ff; Act 28:11, Jam 3:4, Rev 8:9; Rev 18:17; Rev 18:19, and frequently in the Gospels; cf. also , a little boat, Mar 3:9; Mar 4:36, Joh 21:8, and , a skiff, used of the small life-boat which was towed astern the larger vessel on which St. Paul sailed from Palestine to Italy, Act 27:16; Act 27:30; Act 27:32)

The ancient Hebrews were not given to seafaring, Solomon (1Ki 5:9; 1Ki 9:26-28; 1Ki 10:22) and Jehoshaphat (1Ki 22:48-49) being the only important exceptions. They preferred agricultural and pastoral life. Besides, Canaan had no good harbours, and almost the entire coast remained permanently in the possession of others, the Phcenicians holding all north of Mt. Carmel, and the Philistines most of that to the south. Simon the Hasmonaean (circa, about 145 b.c.) was the first to make a harbour. He took Joppa for haven, and made it an entrance for the isles of the sea (1Ma 14:5). According to Josephus (Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) I. xxi. 5, Ant. XV. ix. 6), Herod the Great added a second harbour at Caesarea. As early as 400 b.c. the Greeks demonstrated their ability to construct large ships. Dionysius I. of Syracuse built ships with four ranks of oarsmen (Pliny, Historia Naturalis (Pliny) vii. 57; Diod. Sic. xiv. 41, 42). In the days of St. Paul the Romans controlled the commerce of the Mediterranean.

It is to St. Luke that we owe the most vivid as well as the most accurate account of sea-voyaging which has come down to us from antiquity. Experts in naval science agree that it is without a parallel (cf. J. Smith, The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul4). Luke must have possessed a genuine Greek love for things nautical. The wealth of detail contained in Acts 27, 28 regarding St. Pauls experiences from Caesarea to Puteoli, which covered a period of six months (Sept. a.d. 58 to March 59), is invaluable. But long prior to this most eventful voyage, St. Paul had become experienced in nautical affairs. Writing to the Corinthians, he says, Thrice I suffered shipwreck, a night and a day have I been in the deep (2Co 11:25), clinging perhaps to some floating plank or other timber of a wrecked vessel (cf. Act 27:44).

In the voyage to Italy St. Paul and his fellow-prisoners were carried in three different vessels: (1) In a ship of Adramyttium (a town near Troas in Mysia), probably a coasting vessel which was returning home for the winter (Act 27:2). The centurions plan probably was, originally, to take the prisoners all the way to Mysia, and from there cross over and join the Egnatian Way, which ran overland from Byzantium through Philippi to Dyrrachium, thence crossing to Italy. As a matter of fact, they sailed by this vessel only from Caesarea to Myra in Lycia. (2) In a corn-ship of Alexandria bound for Italy, from Myra to Melita, one of the great fleet of merchant ships which assisted in feeding Rome (Act 27:6). This was the vessel which was wrecked. (3) In a second corn-ship of Alexandria, which brought them from Melita to Puteoli (Act 28:11).

The following points in connexion with these ships are especially noteworthy:

1. Size of ships.-While we are not informed as to their exact dimensions, we do know that they were capable of carrying not only a considerable cargo of wheat but also 276 souls all told (though the Vaticanmanuscript reads but 76), and that when one was wrecked another took all these persons on board (Act 27:37-38, Act 28:11). It has been estimated that the capacity of such vessels must have ranged from 500 to 1000 tons. This is corroborated by what we know in general about Roman merchant vessels. That, for example, on which Josephus was wrecked, he tells us, carried about six hundred (Vita, 3). Lucian ( ) also describes a vessel which was driven by a storm into the port of Athens, which measured the equivalent of 180 ft. in length by 45 ft. in breadth, having an approximate tonnage of 1200. And, according to Athenaeus (28:37), the war galley of Ptolemy Philopator measured 420 by 57 ft. (cf. J. Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck4, pp. 187 ff., 234 ff.).

2. The officers.-(a) The sailing-master, steersman, pilot (, Act 27:11; cf. Rev 18:17; in the Authorized Version of Jam 3:4 called the governor, ); and (b) the ship-owner, ship-master, captain (); he it was who hired out his vessel, wholly or in part, for purposes of transportation, probably also receiving the fares.

3. The sailors, called , seamen, shipmen, crew.-It was their keen ears that detected the sounds of the breakers when they were nearing land (Act 27:27; Act 27:30).

4. The sails (, translated gear, Act 27:17; the same word is used in Act 10:11 of the great sheet which Peter saw in a vision; cf. , translated foresail, Act 27:40).-Roman ships usually bore but one large square sail, on which for the most part they depended to propel the vessel. Pliny says there was also a sail at the stern, but this J. Smith regards as exceptional (Pliny, Proaem. xix.; Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck4, p. 192). This large mainsail was fastened to a long yard. It was furled by being drawn up to the yard. It was reefed in time of storm (cf. Act 27:15). From a drawing, preserved at Pompeii, of a vessel dating from the time of the apostles, it is evident that Roman sails were sewn across both vertically and horizontally by bands of rope to check any rent from extending beyond the square in which it occurred. They were made of costly material-byssus, or shesh-and sometimes bore designs, which were woven into them. The ships of Antony and Cleopatra carried purple sails. Tyrian sails were richly embroidered. As St. Paul was a tent-maker, he probably understood sail-making also, and may have more than once crossed the Mediterranean, earning his passage by plying his trade. In times of storm a vessel could not safely carry the large mainsail, or even the yard-arm; hence these were lowered on the deck, and a small storm-sail or foresail () was hoisted to take their place. This was what was actually done on St. Pauls ship just before running aground (Act 27:40). Some, however, following Breusing, interpret the gear which was lowered (Act 27:17) to mean that cables with weights attached were lowered into the sea to retard the vessel in its progress to inevitable destruction (so Blass, Gcerne, Knabenbauer, and, to a modified extent, also Wendt).

5. The masts.-Nothing is said of masts in the account except by implication. There must have been a large mainmast, and probably a foremast also at the bow. They were made of strong wood, possibly of cedar (cf. Eze 27:5). There is no proof that these Roman corn-ships bore a mizzenmast or aftermost mast, though doubtless the Romans at this time possessed three-masted vessels.

6. The anchor (, Act 27:29-30; Act 27:40).-Four are specially mentioned in Act 27:29, but others were doubtless carried, for use at both bow and stern. Originally, the ancients used large stones, but in Roman times they made anchors of iron. They consisted of a main stock with two teeth-like extremities, not always without flukes (cf. Roschach in Daremberg-Saglios Dictionnaire des Antiquits, 1873-75, p. 267). Anchors were needed to prevent a vessel from being cast on the rocks. Those on the ill-fated vessel with St. Paul were finally cast off into the sea and abandoned (Act 27:40). A singularly beautiful figurative use is made of the expression in Heb 6:19, in which the Apostle speaks of hops as an anchor of the soul (see Anchor).

7. The rudder (, Act 27:40; cf. Jam 3:4).-The Greek word comes from a root meaning the blade of an oar; hence a rudder was primarily a broad float oar or paddle. It was probably hung by straps or ropes from the after part of the ship, and was managed by the steersman or master of the vessel (). When not in use, as for example in harbour, it was made fast either to the side of the ship or on deck. When a vessel was on the verge of running aground, the rudder was loosed to carry the ship up the beach (Act 27:40). Of the rudder, also, a striking figurative use is made by the apostle James in speaking of the tongue; he says that, as a little rudder can turn about a great ship, so the tongue can control the whole nature of man (Act 3:4-5).

8. Helps (Act 27:17, They used helps, undergirding the ship, , ).-These were cables for undergirding and strengthening the hull especially in bad weather, in order to prevent the ships timbers from yielding under strain. The vessels of the Romans were so loosely built that they had to be frapped. This was done either lengthwise round the ship from stem to stern above the water-line (as Breusing and Torr are disposed to think) or transversely, amidship under the keel, encircling the vessel (as Balmer, J. Smith, and others). The verb undergirding favours the latter view, though both processes may have been in vogue.

9. Tackling (, Act 27:19).-A comprehensive term including all the ships necessary furniture, its fittings and equipment, everything movable lying on deck or anywhere about, not in actual use-these were cast overboard the third day.

10. The little boat ( , Act 27:16; Act 27:30; Act 27:32).-Every large merchant ship probably had one or more such skiffs to serve as life-boats. They were usually towed behind. That attached to St. Pauls ship was dragging water-logged astern, until, under the lee or Cauda, it was taken up for greater security (Act 27:16). When the sailors felt that danger was imminent, they began to lower it in order to escape to land (Act 27:30), but St. Paul promptly detected their scheme and reported them to the centurion, whereupon it was cut loose and dropped overboard (Act 27:32).

11. Ropes (, Act 27:32).-These held the little life-boat, but, being cut, the boat was allowed to fall off into the sea. No incident in the voyage shows so well the faith which the soldiers had in St. Paul.

12. Sign (, Act 28:11).-Roman ships bore individual ensigns. That on which St. Paul left Melita bore the sign Dioscuri, the Twin Brothers, referring to the heroes Castor and Pollux, the twin sons of Zeus, who were generally regarded as protectors of voyagers. In Greek mythology they were the heroes of many adventures, and were worshipped as divinities, particularly by Dorians and at Rome. To them, as the patron deities of the seamen, this third ship was dedicated. Why the ensign of this particular vessel should be given is not clear, but perhaps it was because of the captains courage in starting in winter (February?) on so perilous a voyage-Melita to Puteoli. Sometimes eyes also were painted or sculptured on the prows of vessels (cf. Act 27:15, , lit. [Note: literally, literature.] to look at the wind eye to eye). The hull, too, was often painted and decorated, the ornament on the stern-post being commonly a swan or a goose-head. From the hull (, Act 27:29) rose the flagstaff which carried the pennant.

13. Speed, winds, currents, direction, etc.-A vessels rate of sailing depended much upon the wind. The voyage from Troas to Philippi St. Paul made on one occasion apparently in two days (Act 16:11-12), whereas on another it required five (Act 20:6). With a fair wind, Roman ships ordinarily averaged, it is reckoned, seven knots an hour. Being rigged like modern Chinese junks, they were peculiarly well fitted to make good speed before the wind. When the winds were unfavourable, ships could be made to sail within seven points of the wind; for example, St. Pauls vessel maintained a N.W.W. course from Cauda to Melita in spite of an E.N.E. Euraquilo, or north-easter (Act 27:14). Roman sailors knew also how to make use of the currents of the Mediterranean. Thus, the ship of Adramyttium sailed northward from Sidon under the lee of Cyprus against winds that were contrary (Act 27:4), probably helped somewhat by a coast current which flows in that direction. In a very severe storm, sailors made their ships lie to, the object being, not to make progress, but to ride out the gale, as under the lee of Cauda (Act 27:14-17). But with vessels of only moderate size, rigged with sails unequally distributed over the deck, and having at best very imperfect charts, and with no compass, shipwrecks were of common occurrence. Sailing was avoided as much as possible in the winter season because the heavens were then frequently clouded and it was impossible to take observations (Act 27:20, Act 28:11), Plumb-lines were carried for purposes of sounding (Act 27:28), and possibly other instruments, such as windlasses; but the science of navigation in apostolic times was still in its infancy.

Most remarkable is the fact that before setting out to sea it was customary even among the Greeks and Romans to supplicate the protecting deities for a prosperous voyage (cf. Wis 14:1, Jon 1:5).

Literature.-J, Smith, The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul4, 1880; A. Breusing, Die Nautik der Alten, 1886; J. Vars, LArt nautique dans lantiquit et spcialement en Grce, daprs A. Breusing, 1887; H. Balmer, Die Romfahrt des Apostels Paulus und die Seefahrtskunde im rm. Kaiserzeitalter, 1905; Cecil Torr, Ancient Ships, 1894; A. Bckh, Urkunden ber das Seewesen des attischen Staates, 1840; H. Guthe, article Ships and Navigation in Standard Bible Dictionary, 1909; M. A. Canney, article Ship in Encyclopaedia Biblica iv.; F. H. Woods, article Ships and Boats in Hastings Single-vol. Dictionary of the Bible ; article Ship in Piercys Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 1908; P. Watts, article Ship in Encyclopaedia Britannica 11 xxiv.; R. M. Blomfield, article Ships and Boats in Hasting’s Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols) v.

George L. Robinson.

Fuente: Dictionary of the Apostolic Church

Ship

(for the original term, see below). Under this head we propose to bring together all the important information extant relating to ancient and especially Biblical naval operations. These latter, although somewhat late historically, and not very scientific, have nevertheless a peculiar interest,

I. Extent of Navigation. The Jews cannot be said to have been a seafaring people; yet their position on the map of the world is such as to lead us to feel that they could not have been ignorant of ships and the business which relates thereunto Phoenicia, the northwestern part of Palestine, was unquestionably among, if not at the head of, the earliest cultivators of maritime affairs. Then the Holy Land itself lay with one side coasting a sea which was anciently the great, highway of navigation, and the center of social and commercial enterprise. Within its own borders it had a navigable lake. The Nile, with which river the fathers of the nation had become acquainted in their bondage, was another great thoroughfare for ships. The Red Sea itself, which conducted towards the remote east, was at no great distance even from the capital of the land. Then at different points in its long line of sea coast there were harbors of no mean repute. Let the reader call to mind Tyre and Sidon in Phoenicia, and Acre (Acco) and Jaffa (Joppa) in Palestine. Yet the decidedly agricultural bearing of the Israelitish constitution checked such a development of power, activity, and wealth as these favorable opportunities might have called forth on behalf of seafaring pursuits. There can, however, be no doubt that the arts of ship building and of navigation came to Greece and Italy from the East, and immediately from the Levant; whence we may justifiably infer that these arts, so far as they were cultivated in Palestine, were there in a higher state of perfection at an early period, at least, than in the more western parts of the world (Ezekiel 27; Strabo, bk. 16 Comenz, De Nave Tyria).

In the early periods of their history the Israelites themselves would partake to a small extent of this skill and of its advantages, since it was only by degrees that they gained possession of the entire land, and for a long time were obliged to give up the sovereignty of very much of their seaboard to the Philistines and other hostile tribes. The earliest history of Palestinian ships lies in impenetrable darkness, so far as individual facts are concerned. In Gen 49:13 there is, however a prophecy, the fulfilment of which would connect the Israelites with shipping at an early period: Zebulun shall dwell at the haven of the sea, and he shall be for a haven of ships, and his border shall be unto Zidon (comp. Deu 33:19; Jos 19:10 sq.) words which seem more fitly to describe the position of Asher in the actual division of the land. These local advantages, however, could have been only partially improved, since we find Hiram, king of Tyre, acting as carrier by sea for Solomon, engaging to convey in floats to Joppa the timber cut in Lebanon for the Temple, and leaving to the Hebrew prince the duty of transporting the wood from the coast to Jerusalem.

When after having conquered Elath and Ezion-geber on the farther arm of the Red Sea, Solomon proceeded to convert them into naval stations for his own purposes, he was still, whatever he did himself, indebted to Hiram for shipmen that had knowledge of the sea (1Ki 9:26; 1Ki 10:22). The effort, however, to form and keep a navy in connection with the East was not lastingly successful; it soon began to decline, and Jehoshaphat failed when at a later day he tried to give new life and energy to the enterprise (1Ki 22:49-50). In the time of the Maccabees Joppa was a Jewish seaport (1Ma 14:5). Herod the Great availed himself of the opportunities naturally afforded to form a more capacious port at Caesarea (Josephus, War, 3, 9, 3),. Nevertheless, no purely Jewish trade by sea was hence even now called into being. Caesarea was the place whence Paul embarked in order to proceed as a prisoner to Rome (Act 27:2). His voyage on that occasion, as described most graphically in the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 27, 28), if it requires some knowledge of ancient maritime affairs in order to be rightly understood, affords also rich and valuable materials towards a history of the subject, and might, we feel convinced, be so treated as of itself to supply many irresistible evidences of the certainty of the events therein recorded, and, by warrantable inferences, of the credibility of the evangelical history in general. No one but an eye witness could have written the minute, exact, true, and graphic account which these two chapters give The vessels connected with Biblical history were, with the exception of those used on the Sea of Galilee (for which see below), for, the most part ships of burden, al, most indeed exclusively so, at least within the period of known historical facts, though in a remote antiquity the Phoenician states can hardly fail to have supported a navy for warlike, as it is known they did for predatory, purposes. This peculiarity, however, of the Biblical ships exonerates us from entering into the general subject of the construction of ancient ships and their several subdivisions. A good general summary, on that head may be found in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s.v. A few details chiefly respecting ships of burden may be of service to the scriptural student.

II. Sources of Information. Ancient literature is singularly deficient in everything which relates to ships or navigation. No work written expressly on the subject has come down to us and we are dependent for our knowledge on the subject upon the incidental notices in poets and historians, or upon the figures on coins, marbles, or paintings, often the works of ignorant artists, which are calculated to mislead. Recent discoveries have, however, added much to our knowledge of the subject, especially in the marbles and pictures exhumed at Herculaneum and Pompeii. No one writer in the whole range of Greek and Roman literature has supplied us (it may be doubted whether all put together have supplied us) with so much information concerning the merchant ships of the ancients as Luke in the narrative of Paul’s voyage to Rome (Act 27:28). There was also dug up at the Piraeus, in 1834 a series of marble slabs, on which were inscribed the inventories of the ships of the Athenian fleet. They have been published by Prof. Bockh, of Berlin, under the title of Urkunden uber das Seewesen? des attischen Staates (Berlin, 1840, fol. and 8vo). The pictorial representations on the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments supply us some additional information. Julius Pollux, in his Onomasticon, has given a long list of nautical terms which, although not often accompanied b, explanations, puts us in possession of the terminology of ancient seamanship, and is satisfactory as agreeing in a remarkable manner with that of Luke Isidore of Seville, in his Origines, also gives many nautical terms with explanations. For other literature, see at the end of this article.

III. Original Teams. As regards Paul’s voyage, it is important to remember that he accomplished it in three ships first, the Adramyttian vessel SEE ADRAMYTTIUM which took him from Caesarea to Myra, and which was probably a coasting vessel of no great size (Act 27:1-6); secondly, the large Alexandrian corn ship, in which he was wrecked on the coast of Malta (Act 27:6; Act 28:1) SEE MELITA; and, thirdly, another large Alexandrian corn ship, in which he sailed from Malta by Syracuse and Rhegilum to Puteoli (Act 28:11-13). The word employed by Luke of each of these ships is, with one single exception, when he uses (Act 27:41), the generic term (Act 27:2; Act 27:6; Act 27:10; Act 27:15; Act 27:22; Act 27:30; Act 27:37-39; Act 27:44; Act 28:11). The same general usage prevails throughout. Elsewhere in the Acts (Act 20:13; Act 20:38; Act 21:2-3; Act 21:6) we have . So in James (Jam 3:4) and in the Revelation (Rev 8:9; Rev 18:17; Rev 18:19), In the Gospels we have (passim) or (Mar 4:36; Joh 21:8). In the Sept. we find used twenty- eight times and nine times. Both words generally correspond to the Hebrew , oni, or , oniyah. In Jon 1:5, is used to represent the Heb. , sephinah, which, from its etymology, appears to mean a vessel covered with a deck or with hatches, in opposition to an open boat. The senses in which (2Ma 12:3; 2Ma 12:6) and (Act 27:16; Act 27:32) are employed we shall notice as we proceed. The use of , or trireme (A.V. galley), is limited to a single passage in the Apocrypha (2Ma 4:20). In four passages (Num 24:24; Isa 33:21; Eze 30:9; Dan 11:30) the Heb. term is , tsi, so called from being set up or built. SEE BOAT.

IV. Styles of Ancient Ships.

1. Their Size. The narrative which we take as our chief guide affords a good standard for estimating this. The ship in which Paul was wrecked had 276 persons on board (Act 27:37), besides a cargo () of wheat (Act 27:10; Act 27:38); and all these passengers seem to have been taken on to Puteoli in another ship (Act 28:11) which had her own crew and her own cargo; nor is there a trace of any difficulty in the matter, though the emergency was unexpected. Now in English transport ships, prepared for carrying troops, it is a common estimate to allow a ton and a half per man; thus we see that it would be a mistake to suppose that these Alexandrian corn ships were very much smaller than modern trading vessels. What is here stated is quite in harmony with other instances. The ship in which Josephus was wrecked (Life, 3), in the same part of the Levant, had 600 souls on board. The Alexandrian corn ship described by Lucian (Navig. s. vota) as driven into the Piraeus by stress of weather, and as exciting general attention from her great size, would appear (from a consideration of the measurements which are explicitly given) to have measured 1100 or 1200 tons. As to the ship of Ptolemy Philadelphus, described by Athenaeus (v. 204), this must have been much larger; but it would be no more fair to take that as a standard than to take the Great Eastern as a type of a modern steamer. On the whole, if we say that an ancient merchant ship might range from 500 to 1000 tons, we are clearly within the mark.

2. Merchant ships in the Old Test. The earliest passages where seafaring is alluded to in the Old Test, are the following in order: Gen 49:13, in the prophecy of Jacob concerning Zebulun (Sept. ); Num 24:24, in Balaam’s prophecy (where, however, ships are not mentioned in the Sept.); Deu 28:68, in one of the warnings of Moses ( / ); Jdg 5:17, in Deborah’s Song ( ). Next after these it is natural to mention the illustrations and descriptions connected with this subject in Job (Job 9:26, ) and in the Psalms (Psa 47:7, Ev irvsfiaaVrL 3Stai:avvrpiEtc 7 ; Psa 104:26, ; Psa 106:23, ). Pro 23:34 may also be quoted. To this add Pro 30:19 ( ); Pro 31:14 ( ). Solomon’s own ships, which may have suggested some of these illustrations (1Ki 9:26; 2Ch 8:18; 2Ch 9:21), have previously been mentioned. We must notice the disastrous expedition of Jehoshaphat’s ships from the same port of Eziongeber (1 Kings 22, 48, 49; 2Ch 20:36-37). The passages which remain are in the prophets, especially Isaiah and Ezekiel. In the former prophet the general term ships of Tarshish is variously given in the Sept. (Isa 2:16), (Isa 23:1; Isa 23:14), (Isa 55:9). For another allusion to seafaring, see Isa 43:14. The celebrated 27th chapter of Ezekiel ought to be carefully studied in all its detail; and in Jon 1:3-16 the following technical phrases in the Sept. (besides what has been already adduced) should be noticed: (Jon 1:3), (Jon 1:4), , (Jon 1:5), (Jon 1:11-12). In Dan 11:40 ( ) we touch the subject of ships of war.

3. Ships of War in the Apocrypha. Military operations both by land and water ( , 1Ma 8:23; 1Ma 8:32) are prominent subjects in the books of Maccabees. Thus in the contract between Judas Maccabaeus and the Romans it is agreed (1Ma 8:26; 1Ma 8:28) that no supplies are to be afforded to the enemies of either, whether , , , or . In a later passage. (1Ma 15:3) we have more explicitly, in the letter of king Antiochus, (see 1Ma 8:14), while in 2Ma 4:20 (as observed above) the word , galleys, occurs in the account of the proceedings of the infamous Jason. Here we must not forget the monument erected by Simon Maccabaeus on his father’s grave, on which, with other ornaments and military symbols, were , (1Ma 13:29). Finally must be mentioned the noyade at Joppa, when the resident Jews, with their wives and children, 200 in number, were induced to go into boats and were drowned (2Ma 12:3-4), with the vengeance taken by Judas ( , 2Ma 12:6). It seems sufficient simply to enumerate the other passages in the Apocrypha where some allusion to seafaring is made. They are the following: Wisdom 5, 10; Wis 14:1; Sir 33:2; Sirach 43, 24; 1Es 4:23.

In row boats the rowers are seated on the crossbeams (, in Latin transtra), hence called zygitoe. Before the invention of gunpowder, naval combats were necessarily at close quarters; but to enable the soldiers () to fight without interfering with the rowers, a platform or gangway () was laid on the top of the bulwarks which surround the deck, projecting partly over the side and partly over the deck. Upon this they fought; and, where great speed was required, as in pursuit or flight, the fighting men rowed, in which case movable seats or stools () were requisite for them to sit upon, and from these they were called thranites. It appears, therefore, that from the necessity of the case, fighting vessels must have had more than one rank of rowers, just as the natives of the South Seas both fight and row from the outriggers of their canoes. The adjoining cut represents the upper rank, or thranites, rowing from the gangway. It is right to explain that the artist has contrived to give the details of the bow and stern, by introducing only one fourth of the straight part of the ship where the rowers were seated. Otherwise, if done to a scale, a long low vessel would have appeared on a coin little more than a mere line.

As the size of the vessels was increased, and they were decked over the zygitae retained their name, but were necessarily placed upon raised seats. Upon trial it was found that an additional rank of rowers, seated on the deck between the oars of the primitive rank, could, by keeping time, row without difficulty. As these were seated nearer the side of the ship, and under the gang way or sheltered portion of the deck which was called the thalamus, or sleeping place, they were called thalamites. Hence the three ranks of rowers in a trireme were the thranites zygites, and thalamites; and hence the vertical distance between the rowers was only one half of the horizontal distance, or only eighteen inches, instead of six feet, as is usually supposed.

The monoxyle, or hollow tree, with both ends rounded, must be held to be the primitive form and model for the ship, and continued to be so with little alteration till the Middle Ages, when a change in the mode of steering rendered a change in the form of the stern necessary, but which it is foreign to our purpose to take into consideration.

4. Boats on the Sea of Galilee. The reader of the New Test. is well aware how frequently he finds himself with the Savior on the romantic shores of the Sea of Gennesareth Board of vessel, (Mat 13:21 Luk 5:3) now sailing up and down the lake (Mat 8:23; Mat 9:1; Mat 14:13, Joh 6:17). Some of his earliest disciples were proprietors of barks which sailed on this inland sea (Mat 4:21; Joh 21:3; Luk 5:3). These ships were indeed small. Josephus designates the ships here employed by the term . They were not, however, mere boats; they carried their anchor with them (War, 3, 10, 1; Life, 33). There was, too, a kind of vessel larger than this, called by Josephus, who narrates a sea fight which took place on the lake, conducted on the part of the Romans by Vespasian himself (War, 3, 10, 9). It thus appears that the lake was not contemptible nor its vessels mean; and those should hence learn to qualify their language who represent the Galilean fishermen as of the poorest class.

There is a melancholy interest in that passage of Dr. Robinson s Researches (3, 253) in which he says that on his approach to the Sea of Tiberias he saw a single, white sail. This was the sail of the one rickety boat which, as we learn from other travelers (see especially Thomson, Land and Book, 2, 81), alone remains on a scene represented to us in the gospels and in Josephus as full of life from the multitude of its fishing boats. In the narratives of the call of the disciples to be fishers of men (Mat 4:18-22; Mar 1:16-20; Luk 5:1-11), there is no special information concerning the characteristics of these boats. In the account of the storm and the miracle on the lake (Mat 8:23-27; Mar 4:3; Luk 8:22-25), it is for every reason instructive to compare the three narratives; and we should observe that Luke is more technical in his language than Matthew, and Mark than Luke. Thus, instead of, , (Mat 8:24), we have , (Luk 8:23), and again (Luk 8:24); and instead of , we have . In Mark (Mar 4:37) we have , . This evangelist also mentions the , or boatman’s cushion, on which our blessed Savior was sleeping , and he uses the technical term for the lulling of the storm. See more on this subject in Smith, Dissertation on the Gospels (Lond. 1853). We may turn now to John. In the account he, gives of what followed the miracle of walking, on the sea (Mar 6:16-25), and seem to be used indifferently, and we have mention of other . There would of course be boats of various sizes on the lake. The reading, however, is doubtful. Finally, in the solemn scene after the resurrection (Joh 21:1-8), we have the terms and , which should be noticed as technical. Here again and appear to be synonymous. If we compare all these passages with Josephus, we easily come to the conclusion that, with the large population around the Lake of Tiberias, there must have been a vast number both of fishing boats and pleasure boats, and that boat building must have been an active trade on its shores (see Stanley, Sin. and Pal. p. 367).

The so called ships of the Lake of Tiberias were, in fact, fishing boats impelled by oars (see Mar 6:48; Joh 6:19). We learn also from Luke’s account of Christ stilling the tempest, and his using the expression , sailing (Luk 8:23), that they must have had masts and sails;. and from Mark’s account of the same event (Mar 4:38) they must have been furnished with , pillow, which, according to Hesychius, was the same as the , or fleece, upon which the rowers sat. So far as we can learn from the scriptural account, they fished with nets, we must suppose with the drag net, and also with the (Mat 4:18) or (Mar 1:16).

V. Construction and Equipment.

1. Shape and Ornaments of the Hull. It is probable, from the mode of steering (and, indeed, it is nearly evident from ancient works of art), that there was no very marked difference between the bow, (, foreship, Act 27:30, fore part Act 27:41) and the stern (, hinder part. Act 27:41; see Mar 4:38). The hold (, the sides of the ship, Jon 1:5) would present no special peculiarities. In merchant ships the sides of the deck were defended by an open rail, the stem post and stern post rising in a curve, most frequently terminated by an ornament representing the head of a waterfowl bent backwards. This was termed the apelustre or cheniscus (, from , a goose); or by a head in profile, probably suggestive of the sign (, Act 28:11) or name of the ship. Outside of these ornaments were projections at each end, which increased the dimensions without adding to the capacity or tonnage of the vessels. This, must be kept in mind in estimating the relative size of ancient and modern ships. On the stern projections we sometimes see an awning represented, as in the ship on the tomb at Pompeii; and on the corresponding projections at the bow, we are informed by Lucian, in his description of an Alexandrian ship, that the anchors were stowed, and also the and .

The may be interpreted capstans for heaving up the anchors, and the oars or paddles for helping the ship round when slack in stays, rendered by Hedericus instrumentum ad circumagendam navem. In the picture of Theseus deserting Ariadne, from Herculaneum, we see the cable coiled round a capstan near the stern. We see also the roof of one of the , or cabins, mentioned by Lucian in his description of the ship of Alexandria. It will be observed that the mode of furling the sails like a window curtain, more fully indicated in another figure, is marked by the outline of the sole or lower edge of the sail. Of two other customary ornaments, however, one is probably implied, and the second is distinctly mentioned in the account of Paul’s voyage. That personification of ships which seems to be instinctive led the ancients to paint an eye on each side of the bow. Such is the custom still in the Mediterranean, and indeed our own sailors speak of the eyes of a ship. This gives vividness to the word , which is used (Act 27:15) where it is said that the vessel could not bear up into (literally look at) the wind. This was the vessel in which Paul was wrecked. An ornament of that which took him on from Malta to Pozzuoli is more explicitly referred to.

The sign of that ship (, Act 28:11) was Castor and Pollux (lucida sidera brilliant constellations, auspicious to navigators, Horace, Od. 1, 3; Liv. 37, 92; Tacit. Ann. 6, 34; Ovid, Trist. 1, 10, 1); and the symbols of these heroes (probably in the form represented in the coin engraved under that article) were doubtless painted or sculptured on each side of the bow, as was the case with the goddess Isis on Lucian’s ship ( , Navig. c. 5). The Rev. George Brown found an inscription at Port Phenia which had been on an ancient building, superintended by an Alexandrian gubernator (, Act 27:11), of the ship whose sign was Isopharia. In the list of the Attic fleet we find names like those of the moderns, such as Agatha, Amphitrite, Aura, Delia, Lyra, Europa, Centaur, Roma, etc.

2. Masts, Sails, Ropes or Rigging, Yards, Oars, etc. These, in distinction from the hull or vessel itself, were collectively called or , gear ( , Jul. Poll.). We find this word twice used for parts of the. rigging in the narrative of the Acts (Act 27:17; Act 27:19). The rig of an ancient ship was more simple and clumsy. than that employed in modern times. Its great feature was one large mast, with one large square sail fastened to a yard of great length. Such was the rig: also of the ships of the Northmen at a later period. Hence the strain upon the hull and the danger of starting the planks were greater than under the present system, which distributes the mechanical pressure more evenly over the whole. ship. Not that there were never more masts than one, or more sails than one on the same mast, in an ancient merchantman. But these were repetitions, so to speak; of the same general unit of rig. In the account of Paul’s shipwreck very explicit mention is made of the (Act 27:40), which is undoubtedly, the foresail (not mainsail, as in the A.V.).

Such a sail would be almost necessary in putting a large ship about. On that occasion it was used in the process of running the vessel aground. Nor is it out of place here to quote a Crimean letter in the Times (Dec. 5, 1855): The Lord Raglan [merchant ship] is on shore, but taken there in a most sailor like manner. Directly her captain found he could not save her, he cut away his mainmast and mizzen, and, setting a topsail on her foremast, ran her ashore stem on. Such a mast may be seen raking over the bow, in representations of ships in Roman coins. In the Old Test. the mast () is mentioned (Isa 33:23); and from another prophet (Eze 27:5) we learn that the cedar wood from Lebanon was sometimes used for this part of ships. There is a third passage (Pro 23:34, ) where the top of a ship’s mast is probably intended, though there is some slight doubt on the subject, and the Sept. takes the phrase differently. Both ropes (, Act 27:32) and sails () are mentioned in the above quoted passage of Isaiah, and from Ezekiel (Eze 27:7) we learn that the latter were often made of Egyptian linen (if such is the meaning of ). There the word (which we find also in Act 27:17; Act 27:30) is used for lowering the sail from the yard. It is interesting here to notice that the word , the technical term for furling a sail, is twice used by Paul, and that in an address delivered in a seaport in the course of a voyage (Act 20:20; Act 20:27). It is one of the very few cases in which the apostle employs a nautical metaphor.

The annexed cut, from a marble in the Borghese collection at Rome, gives a good idea of the relative size and position of the sails, although in other respects the details are incorrect. It will be observed from this as well as from the figure of the ship from the tomb at Pompeii, the sails are divided into compartments by ropes sewed across them; so that should the sail be torn in a storm, the injury would be confined to one of the squares. The name of the great and proper mast ( ) was acation’ (); the. mast at the stern epidromus, according to Julius Pollux, who adds that the smallest was called dolon, without, however, mentioning its position. Isidore of Seville gives the same names to the sails in a passage evidently taken from the foregoing, which is as follows:. Acatium velum maximum et in medium navi constitutum, epidromus secundse amplitudinis sed ad puppim.

Dolon minimum velum et ad proram artemo dirigendae potius navis causa commendatum quam celeritate. It has generally been supposed by this that the sail at the bow was called the dolon. Mr. Smith, however, in his essay has shown, by numerous extracts from ancient authors, that the dolones were small sails to be substituted for the. larger in stormy weather, and that the mast at the bow with its sail was the artemon., In addition to the; three lower sails, they had suppara, or topsails, to be set in light winds;.and it would appear from a coin of Nero, given by Montfaucon (p. .cxliii), that they had sails above the suppara equivalent to topgallant sails a ship being represented with two yards above the main yard. We have no proof that the ancients made use of what, in modern language, are termed fore and aft sails; but they certainly had triangular. sails, at least in the war galleys, with the apex at the foot of the mast; such a sail could be braced about without interfering with the rowers, which was probably the reason why this form was adopted. The lower corners of the sails, or rather the ropes which attach them to the sides of the ship, in English the sheets, were called the feet of the sails. The projpes, fore foot .(), a word which has puzzled commentators, is simply the sheet which is drawn forward, and would no doubt have been called in English the fore sheet, had that term not been applied to the sheet of the foresail. The in ancient ships consisted of (wooden gear), and pacras (hanging gear); the first consisted of masts, yards, oars, rudders, etc. The (funes) were the hawsers or strong ropes for the anchors, and also for fastening the ship ashore; while the were a lighter kind of cordage, carefully made and attached to the masts, yards, and sails. The yards () were composed of two spars doubled in the center. This explains an apparently absurd non sequitur of Pliny. He tells us that, although single spars were large enough, yet seamen were so rash as to add sail to sail the word non being obviously omitted. The above cut, from the tomb of Nsevoleia Tyche at Pompeii, explains the mode of furling the sails by drawing them up to the yard like a window curtain, as already noticed in the ship of Theseus.

This seems the best place for noticing three other points of detail. Though we must not suppose that merchant ships were habitually propelled by rowing, yet sweeps. must sometimes have been employed. In Eze 27:29, oars () are distinctly mentioned; and it seems that oak wood from Bashan was used in making them ( , Eze 27:6). Again, in Isa 33:21, literally means a ship of oar, i.e. an oared vessel. Rowing, too, is probably implied in Jon 1:13, where the Sept. has simply . Another feature of the ancient as of the modern ship is the flag, or , at the top of the mast (Isaiah loc. cit. and Isa 30:17). Here, perhaps, as in some other respects, the early Egyptian paintings supply our best illustration. Each ship was provided also with a plumb line for sounding (Act 27:28; Isidor. Orig. 19:4).

3. Steering Apparatus. Some commentators have fallen into strange perplexities from observing that in Act 27:40 ( , the fastenings of the rudders) Luke uses in the plural. One even suggests that the ship has one rudder fastened at the bow and another fastened at the stern. We may say of him, as a modern writer says in reference to a similar comment on a passage of Cicero, It is hardly possible that he can be seen a ship. The sacred writer’s use of is just like Pliny’s use of gubernacula (H. N. 11:37, 88) or Lucretius’s of guberna (iv, 440). Ancient ships were in truth not steered at all by rudders fastened or hinged to the stern, but by means of two paddle rudders, one on each quarter, acting in a rowlock or through a port hole, as the vessel might be small or large. This fact is made familiar to us in classical works of art, as on coins, and the sculptures of Trajan’s Column. The same thing is true, not only of the Mediterranean, but of the early ships of the Northmen, as may be seen in the Bayeux tapestry. Traces of the two rudders are found in the time of Louis IX. The hinged rudder first appears on the coins of king Edward III. There is nothing out of harmony with this early system of steering in James 2, 4, where occurs in the singular; for the governor or steersman ( ) would only use one paddle rudder at a time In a case like that described in Act 27:40, where four anchors were let go at the stern, it would of course be necessary to lash or trice up both paddles, lest they should interfere with the ground tackle. When it became necessary to steer the ship again, and the anchor ropes were cut, the lashings of the paddles would of course be unfastened.

4. Anchors. It is probable that the ground tackle of Greek and Roman sailors was quite as good as our own. The anchors appear to have differed little from those of the modems, except that in place of the palms or iron plates attached to the extremities of the arms, the arms themselves were beaten flat, as in the Dutch anchors. It is a common error to suppose that they were without stocks. Thus Capt. Beechey says, The transverse piece or anchor stock is wanting in all of them. The annexed cut, from a coin of Antoninus Pius, shows that this is a mistake.

Two allusions to anchoring are found in the New Test., one in a very impressive metaphor concerning Christian hope (Heb 6:19). A saying of Socrates, quoted here by Kypke ( ): may serve to carry our thoughts to the other passage, which is part of the literal narrative of Paul’s voyage at its most critical point. The ship in which he was sailing had four anchors on board, and these were all employed in the night, when the danger of falling on breakers was imminent. The sailors. on this occasion anchored by the stern ( , Act 27:29). In this there is nothing remarkable, if there has been time for due preparation. English ships of war anchored by the stern at Copenhagen and Algiers. It is clear, too, that this was the right course for the sailors with whom Paul was concerned, for their plan was to run the ship aground at daybreak. The only motives for surprise are that they should have been able so to anchor without preparation in a gale of wind, and that the anchors should have held on such a night. The answer to the first question thus suggested is that, ancient ships, like their modern successors, the small craft among the Greek islands, were in the habit of anchoring by the stern, and therefore prepared for doing so. We have a proof of this in one of the paintings of Herculaneum, which illustrates another point already mentioned, viz. the necessity of tricing up the movable rudders in case of anchoring by the stern (see Act 27:40). The other question, which we have supposed to arise, relates rather to the holding ground than to the mode of anchoring; and it is very interesting here to quote what an English sailing book says of Paul’s Bay in Malta: While the cables hold, there is no danger, as the anchors will never start (Purdy, Sailing Directions, p. 180).

5. Undergirers. The imperfection of the build, and still more (see above, 2) the peculiarity of the rig, in ancient ships resulted in a greater tendency than in our times to the starting of the planks, and consequently to leaking and foundering. We see this taking place alike in the voyages of Jonah, Paul, and Josephus; and the loss of the fleet of 2Eneas in Virgil ( laxis laterum compagibus omnes, AEn. i, 122) may be adduced in illustration. Hence it was customary to take on board peculiar contrivances, suitably called helps (, Act 27:17), as precautions against such dangers. These were simply cables or chains, which in case of necessity could be passed around the frame of the. ship, at right angles to its length, and made tight. The process is in the English navy called frapping, and many instances could be given where it has been found necessary in modern experience. Ptolemy’s great ship, in Athenaeus (loc. cit.), carried twelve of these undergirders (). Various allusions to the practice are to be found in the ordinary classical writers. See, for instance, Thucyd. i, 29; Plato, Rep. 10:3, 616; Horace, Od. i, 14, 6. But it is most to our purpose to refer to the inscriptions containing a complete inventory of the Athenian navy, as published by Bbckh (Urkunden fiber das Seewesen des attischen Staates [Berl. 1840]). The editor, however, is quite mistaken in supposing, (p. 133-138) that these undergirders were passed around the body of the ship from stem to stern. .

6. Ship’s Boat. This is perhaps the best place for noticing separately the , which appears prominently in the narrative of the voyage (Act 27:16; Act 27:32). Every large merchant ship must have had one or more boats. It is evident that the Alexandrian corn ship in which Paul was sailing from Fair Havens, and in which the sailors, apprehending no danger, hoped to reach Phoenice, had her boat towing behind. When the gale came, one of their first desires must have been, to take the boat on board, and this was done under the lee of Clauda, when the ship was undergirded, and brought round to the wind for the purpose of lying to; but it was done with difficulty, and it would seem:that the passengers gave assistance in the task ( , Act 27:16). The sea by this time must have been furiously rough, and the boat must have been filled with water. It is with this very boat that one of the most lively passages of the whole narrative is connected. When the ship was at anchor in the night before she was run aground, the sailors lowered the boat from the davits with the selfish desire of escaping, on which Paul spoke to the soldiers, and they cut the ropes ( ) and the boat fell off (Act 27:30-32).

VI. Command and Mfanagement.

1. Officers, and Crew. In Act 27:11 we have both and . The latter is the owner (in part or in whole) of the ship or the cargo, receiving also (possibly) the fares of the passengers.:The former has the charge of the steering. The same word occurs also in Rev 18:17,; Pro 23:34; Eze 27:8, and is equivalent to in Eze 27:29; Jon 1:6. In Jam 3:4, , the governor, is simply the steersman for the moment. The word for shipmen (Act 27:27; Act 27:30) and sailors (Rev 18:17) is simply the usual term, . In the latter passage occurs for the crew, but the text is doubtful. In Eze 27:8-9; Eze 27:26-27; Eze 27:29; Eze 27:34, we have for :those who handle the oar, and in the same chapter (Eze 27:29). , which may mean either passengers or mariners. The only other passages which need be noticed here are 1Ki 9:27, and 2Ch 8:18, in the account of Solomon’s ships. The former has ; the latter, .

2. Rate of Sailing. Paul’s voyages furnish excellent data for approximately estimating this, and they, are: quite in harmony with what we learn from other sources. We must notice here, however (what commentators sometimes curiously forget), that, winds are variable. Thus the voyage between Troas and Philippi, accomplished on one occasion (Act 16:11-12) in two days, occupied on another occasion (xx, 6) five days. Such a variation might be illustrated by what took place almost any week between Dublin and Holyhead before the application of steam to seafaring. With a fair wind an ancient ship would sail fully seven knots an hour. Two very good instances are again supplied by Paul’s experience in the voyages from Caesarea to Sidon (xxvii, 2, 3) and from Rhegium to Puteoli (xxviii, 13). The result given by comparing, in these cases, the measurements of time and distance corresponds with what we gather from Greek and Latin authors generally e.g. from Pliny’s story of the fresh fig produced by Cato in the, Roman senate before the third Punic war: This fruit was gathered fresh at Carthage three days ago; that is the distance of the enemy from your walls (H. A. 15:20).

3. Sailing Before the Wind and Near the Wind. The square rig which has been described is, like the rig of Chinese junks, peculiarly favorable to a quick run before the wind. We have in the New Test. (Act 16:11; Act 27:16) the technical term for voyages made under such advantageous conditions. The run of Paul’s ship from Rhegium to Puteoli, one hundred and eighty miles, in two consecutive days, the wind being from the south and consequently fair, agrees perfectly with the instances adduced by captain Beechey in his remarks on ancient ships (Appendix to Travels in Africa, p. 38). It would, however, be a great mistake to suppose that ancient ships could not work to windward. Pliny distinctly says: lisdem ventis in colitrarium navigatur prolatis pedibus (H. N. 2, 48). Cicero, in one of his epistles, says that in consequence of contrary winds they navigated slowly and with difficulty: Adversis ventis usi essemus tardeque et incommode navigassemus ( Epist. ad Familiares, lib. 14:Ephesians 5), a passage which agrees in a very remarkable manner with one in Luke’s account of Paul’s voyage, , etc. (Act 27:7) sailing slowly and with difficulty were come, etc. Luke does not mention contrary winds; but we know from the context that the ship was sailing to the westward, in a: region and at a season when westwardly winds constantly prevail. The superior rig and build, however, of modern ships enable them to sail nearer to the wind than was the case in classical times. At one very critical point of Paul’s voyage to Rome (ibid.) we are told that the ship could not hold on her course (which was west by south, from Cnidus by. the north side of Crete) against a violent wind ( )) blowing from the northwest, and that consequently she ran down to the east end of Crete, SEE SALMONE, and worked up under the shelter of the south side of the island (Act 27:7-8). SEE FAIR HAVENS. Here the technical terms of our sailors have been employed, whose custom is to divide the whole circle of the compass card into thirty-two equal parts called points. A modern ship, if the weather is not very boisterous, will sail within six points of the wind. To an ancient vessel, of which the hull was more clumsy and the yards could not be braced so tight, it would be safe to assign seven points as the limit. This will enable us, so far as we know the direction of the wind (and we can really ascertain it.in each case very exactly), to lay down the tacks of the ships in which Paul sailed, beating against the wind, on the voyages from Philippi to Troas ( , Act 20:6), from Sidon to Myra ( , Act 27:3-5), from Myra to Cnidus ( , Act 20:6-7), from Salmone to Fair Havens ( , Act 27:7-8), and from Syracuse to Rhegium (, Act 28:12-13).

4. Lying-to. This topic arises naturally out of what has preceded, and it is so important in reference to the main questions connected with the shipwreck at Malta that it is here made the subject of a separate section. A ship that could make progress on her proper course, in moderate weather, when sailing within seven points of the wind, would lie-to in a gale, with her length making about the same angle with the direction of the wind. This is done when the object is not to make progress at all hazards. but to ride out a gale in safety; and this is what was done in Paul’s ship when she was undergirded and the boat taken on board (Act 27:14-17) under the lee of Clauda. It is here that Luke uses the vivid term mentioned above. Had the gale been less violent, the ship could easily have held on her course. To anchor was out of the question; and to have drifted before the wind would have been to run into the fatal Syrtis on the African coast. SEE QUICKSANDS. Hence the vessel was laid to (close hauled, as the sailors say) on the Starboard tack, i.e. with her right side towards the storm. The wind was east northeast, SEE EUROCLYDON, the ship’s bow would point north by west, the direction of drift (six points being added for lee way) would be west by north, and the rate of drift about a mile and a half an hour. It is from these materials that we easily come to the conclusion that the shipwreck must have taken place on the coast of Malta. SEE ADRIA.

5. Storms and Shipwrecks. The dangers of the ocean to sailors on board such ships as these were great, and, in the then ignorance of navigation, caused sailing to be restricted to the spring, summer, and autumn months; winter was avoided. To the Romans the sea was opened in March and closed in November (Caesar, Bell. Gall. 4, 36; 5, 23; Philo, Opp. 4, 548; Act 27:9); and ships which, towards the end of the year, were still at sea earnestly sought a harbor in which to pass the Winter (Act 27:12).

The first century of the Christian era was a time of immense traffic in the Mediterranean; and there must have been many vessels lost there every year by shipwreck, and, perhaps, as many by foundering. This last danger would be much increased by the form of rig described above. Besides this, we must remember that the ancients had no compass and very imperfect charts and instruments, if any at all; and though it would be a great mistake to suppose that they never ventured out of sight of land, yet, dependent as they were on the heavenly bodies, the danger was much greater than now in bad weather, when the sky was overcast and neither sun nor stars in many days appeared (Act 27:20). Hence, also, the winter season was considered dangerous and, if possible, avoided ( , Act 27:9).

Certain coasts, too, were much dreaded, especially the African-Syrtis (Act 27:17), The danger indicated by breakers (Act 27:29), and the fear of falling on rocks ( ), are matters of course. Paul’s experience seems to have been full of illustrations of all these perils. We learn from 2Co 11:25 that, before the voyage described in detail by Luke, he had been three times wrecked; and, further, that he had once been a night and a day in the deep, probably floating on a spar, as was the case with Josephus. These circumstances give peculiar force to his using the metaphor of a shipwreck (, 1Ti 1:19) in speaking of those who had apostatized from the faith. In connection with this general subject we may notice the caution with which, on the voyage from Troas to Patara (Act 20:13-16; Act 21:1), the sailors anchored for the night, during the period of dark moon, in the intricate passages between the islands and the main, SEE MITYLENE; SEE SAMOS; SEE TROGYLLIUM; the evident acquaintance which, on the voyage to Rome, the sailors of the Adramyttian ship had with the currents on the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor (Act 27:2-5) SEE ADRAMYTTIUM; and the provision for taking soundings in case of danger, as clearly indicated in the narrative of the. shipwreck at Malta; the measurements being apparently the same as those which are customary with us ( , , Act 27:28).

6. Nautical Terms. The great repertory of such terms, as used by those who spoke the Greek language, is the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux; and it may be useful to conclude this article by mentioning a few out of many which are found there, and also in the New Test. or Sept. First, to quote some which have been mentioned above. We find the following, both in Pollux and the Scriptures: , , , , , , , , , , , , , (compared with Act 27:15; Act 28:11), (compared with Act 27:29; Act 27:40). The following are some which have not been mentioned in this article: and (e.g. Act 28:11-12), (Eze 27:5). . (Wis 5:10), (Jon 1:3; Mar 6:51), (Mat 8:26), (Mat 4:18; Mar 1:16), (Act 21:4), (Act 27:13), ( ; Act 21:14) ( , Act 21:30), (;, Act 21:10; , Act 21:21), (, 41), (42), ( , vaer. 41). This is an imperfect list of the whole number; but it may serve to show how rich the New Test. and Sept. are in the nautical phraseology of the Greek Levant. To this must be added a notice of the peculiar variety and accuracy of, Luke’s ordinary phrases for sailing under different circumstances, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

VII. Authorities. Smith’s work on the Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul (Lond. 1848, 1856) is the standard work, on ancient ships, and it contains a complete list of previous books on the subject. Reference, however, may be made to the memoranda of admiral Penrose, incorporated in Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul (Lond. 1856, 2d ed.), ch. 27:notes. See also Schlozer, Vers. einer allgem. Gesch. d. Handels u. der Schifffahrt. in den adtesten Zeiten (Rostock, 1760); Le Roy, La Marine des Anciens Peuples (Paris, 1777); Berghaus, Gesch. d. Schifffahrtskunde (Leips. 1792); Benedict, Vers. einer Gesch. d. Schiff. u. d. Hand. bei d. Alten (ibid. 180.9); Howell, On the War Galleys of the Ancients; Jal [A.], Archeologie Navale (Paris, 1840). A full account of the ancient Egyptian vessels is given by Wilkinson, abridgm. 1, 411 sq.; 2, 119 sq. SEE NAVIGATION; SEE SHIPWRECK.

Fuente: Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature

Ship (2)

in ecclesiastical usage, is the name given to the vessel, shaped like a ship, in which incense is kept. It is also called a boat.

Fuente: Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature

Ship

Among the earliest shipbuilders were the Phoenicians, whose commerce and voyages made them foremost in the maritime science of early ages, and traces of whose ships are frequently met with. (On PAUL’S voyage, see EUROCLYDON; MELITA; CNIDUS; CRETE; FAIR HAVENS.) Paul was first in the Adramyttian coasting vessel from Caesarea to Myra; then in the large Alexandrian grain ship wrecked at Malta; then in another Alexandrian grain ship from Malta by Syracuse and Rhegium to Purcell. Luke shows accurate nautical knowledge, yet not professional, but of an observer, telling what was done but not the how or the why.

Fourteen different verbs he uses of the progression of a ship, peculiar to himself and appropriate to each case: pleoo; Luk 8:23; Act 21:3; apopleo; Act 13:4; Act 14:26; Act 20:15; Act 27:1; bradupleoo; Act 27:7; diapleoo; Act 27:5; ekpleoo; Act 15:39; katapleoo; Luk 8:26; hupopleoo; Act 27:4; Act 27:7; parapleoo; Act 20:16; euthudromeoo; Act 16:11; Act 21:1; hupotrechoo; Act 27:16; paralegomai; Act 27:8; Act 27:13; feromai; Act 27:15; diaferomai; Act 27:27; diaperaoo; Act 21:2. Paul’s ship, besides cargo of wheat, carried 276 persons, so she would be of 600 tons. Lucian (Ploion e Euche) describes an Alexandrian wheat ship, 180 ft. long (including end projections) by 45 ft. broad, i.e. 1,300 tons.

The largest on record was Ptolemy Philopator’s war galley, 420 ft. long by 57 ft. broad, under 5,000 tons. “The governor” in Jam 3:4 is the “helmsman” (kuberneetees; the “owner” was naukleeros). There were two paddle rudders, one on each quarter, acting in a rowlock or through a porthole. As the helmsman used only one at a time, “the helm” is in the singular in Jam 3:4. In Act 27:29; Act 27:40, after letting go the four anchors at the stern, they lashed up both the rudder paddles lest they should interfere with the ground tackle. When they wished to steer again and the anchor ropes were cut (margin), they unfastened the lashings or bands of the paddles. The ship’s run from Rhegium to Puteoli, 180 miles in two days, the wind being full from the S., illustrates the rate of sailing. The bow and the stern were much alike, except that on each side of the bow was painted “the sign” (paraseemon), as for instance “Castor and Pollux” (Act 28:11).

An eye was painted on each side of the bow; so Luke’s phrase (antofthalmein), “bear up into,” literally, “eye the wind” directly (Act 27:15). The imperfect build of ships caused the need of “undergirders” to pass round the frame, at right angles to its length, when the planks were in danger of starting. The anchors resembled ours, but had no flukes. Spiritually they symbolize the Christian hope (Heb 6:19). The soul is the ship; the world the sea; the bliss beyond the distant coast; hope resting on faith the anchor which prevents the vessel being tossed to and fro; the consolation through God’s promise and hope is the cable connecting the ship and anchor. The soul clings, as one in fear of shipwreck, to the anchor, and sees not where the cable runs, where it is fastened; she knows it is fastened behind the veil which hides the future glory; if only she hold on to the anchor, she shall in due time be drawn in where it is, into the holiest, by the Saviour.

Anchoring by the stern, the ancients were prepared to anchor in the gale such as Paul encountered; and Purdy (Sailing Directions, 180) says that the holding ground at Malta where Paul was wrecked is quite good enough to have secured the anchors and ship in spite of the severe night. In Act 27:40, for “mainsail” translated “foresail,” which was needed to put the ship about and to run it aground. Vessels were propelled by oars as well as by sails (Eze 27:29; Isa 33:21; Jon 1:13). Of the 32 parts or points of the compass card a modern ship will sail within six points of the wind. The clumsier ancient ship probably could sail within seven points. In a heavy gale the ship would lie to, with the right side to the storm, the object being not progress but safety; as under the lee of Clauda (Act 27:14-17).

To anchor was impossible; to drift would have brought the ship to the fatal Syrtis off Africa. The wind was E.N.E. (Euraquilo); the direction of drift being W. by N., and the rate of drift one mile and a half an hour; the shipwreck must have been off Malta. Having no compass or charts, they seldom ventured voyaging in winter (Act 27:9), and the absence of visible sun or stars seriously embarrassed them (Act 27:20). In the intricate passages between islands and mainland they did not sail by night when the moon was dark (Act 20:13-16; Act 21:1). Thomson (Land and Book, 401-404) mentions seeing but one rickety boat on the sea of Galilee, which was once covered with fishermen’s boats; contrast the fact that Josephus (B. J., 2:21, section 8-10) mentions his collecting here 280 boats, with four men in each.

Fuente: Fausset’s Bible Dictionary

SHIP

Israelites were not seafaring people, partly because the Mediterranean coast south of Mt Carmel had shallow waters and sandy shores, with no good sites for harbours. North of Mt Carmel, however, there were good harbours at Tyre and Sidon. This was one reason why the Phoenicians became a famous seafaring nation in Old Testament times (Eze 27:2; Eze 27:25; Eze 28:2; see PHOENICIA).

In the time of the Israelite monarchy, King Hiram of Phoenicia and King Solomon of Israel established a fleet of ships to operate between the Red Sea port of Ezion-geber and India. Because of the Israelites lack of seafaring experience, Solomon had to rely on the Phoenician seamen to guide and teach his men. The ships used on this route were known as ships of Tarshish. This was a technical name for a certain kind of ocean-going cargo ship, not an indication of the port to which or from which a ship was sailing (1Ki 9:26-28; 1Ki 10:11; 1Ki 10:22; see TARSHISH).

Ships of Tarshish, like other large ships, may have been driven by oars or by sails (Isa 33:21; Isa 33:23; Eze 27:6-8; Eze 27:26; Eze 27:29). River boats, which were much smaller, may have been made of papyrus reeds (Isa 18:1-2).

Gods judgment on the greedy commercial giant Phoenicia (Tyre) was pictured by the prophet Ezekiel as the sinking of a great ship. The ship had been beautifully made of the best materials from all parts of the trading world. Its planks, masts, oars and decking were made of the best timbers, its sails of the finest linen, and its colours of the most expensive dyes. The rowers, sailors and craft workers who made up its crew were highly skilled people from many countries. Tyres trade, however, became so great that the ship became overloaded. When caught in a storm at sea, it sank. All its cargo was lost and all the crew drowned (Eze 27:1-9; Eze 27:25-27; Eze 28:2-8; cf. Rev 18:19).

In New Testament times huge grain ships sailed from Alexandria in Egypt to Greece and Rome (Act 27:6; Act 28:11). They were capable of carrying large cargoes and several hundred people (Act 27:18; Act 27:37). Being sailing ships, they had to stay in port during winter months, when severe storms were likely to wreck them (Act 27:9-20). During the stormy season the ships crew wrapped strong ropes or metal bands around the hulls of the ships to hold their timbers together (Act 27:17).

The smaller boats that sailed on the Lake of Galilee were used mainly for fishing or carrying passengers (Mat 4:21-22; Mat 8:23-27; Mat 9:1; Luk 5:2-7; Joh 6:22-23; Joh 21:3). They were driven either by sails or by oars, depending on the weather conditions (Mar 6:48; Joh 6:19).

Fuente: Bridgeway Bible Dictionary

Ship

SHIP.See Boat.

Fuente: A Dictionary Of Christ And The Gospels

Ship

It was among the prophecies of the dying patriarch Jacob, (Gen 49:13) that Zebulun should dwell in “the haven of the sea, and be an haven for ships” And how distant soever this allusion may appear to some concerning the days of Christ, and the eventual dispersion of the gospel to the Gentile islands of the sea, yet from subsequent prophecies to the same amount, when illustrated by each other, I confess that I am inclined to believe that some great maritime power, such as our own, may be fairly referred to in the several prophecies to this amount. I beg the reader before he goes farther to consult Num 24:24; Mat 4:13-16; Eze 27:1-36; Eze 28:1-26; Dan 4:13; Dan 11:30. No doubt, The Tyrus spoken of is mystical as well as other places mentioned in those prophecies. The limits to be observed in this Poor Man’s Concordance will not allow me to enlarge.

I cannot however dismiss the subject without first observing that, however partial we may be to our own country as to fancy the great maritime power alluded to means our British Zion, the present ra is highly unfavourable to the character of faithful worshippers. Whoever takes a fair and impartial statement between the purity of our faith and practice, and the period after the Reformation, will be struck with astonishment in the sad change. I was much pleased with the perusal of a paper which lately fell into my hands, entitled the Bill of Lading for a Ship. From the beautiful simplicity of style, as well as the evident marks of grace in which it is written, I take for granted that it was first in use in that glorious period, when the pure doctrines of the gospel were as much known and valued as they are now forgotten or despised. I mean from about the year 1560. I shall venture to believe the reader, if he hath never seen a Bill of Lading for a Ship, will thank me for inserting it under this article. It is in my esteem a precious fragment of the devotion of our Navy, as well as our fathers at that time in this kingdom engaged in commerce.

“Shipped by he grace of God, in good order, and well conditioned, in and upon the good Ship called the…whereof is master, under God, for this present voyage, A. B. and now riding at anchor in the river Thames, and by God’s grace bound for…such and such goods. And which said goods are to be delivered in the like good order, at the said port (the act of God, the king’s enemies, fire, and all and every other dangers and accidents of the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature and kind soever, excepted.) And so God send the good ship to her desired port in safety. Amen.”

Fuente: The Poor Mans Concordance and Dictionary to the Sacred Scriptures

Ship

Fig. 319Ancient Ship of the largest kind

In few things is there greater danger of modern associations misleading the reader of the Scriptures than in regard to the subject of the present article. Both the ships and the navigation of the ancients, even of the most maritime states, were as dissimilar as things of the same kind can well be to the realities which the terms now represent. Navigation confined itself to coasting, or if necessity, foul weather, or chance drove a vessel from the land, a regard to safety urged the commander to a speedy return, for he had no guide but such as the stars might afford under skies with which he was but imperfectly acquainted. And ships, whether designed for commercial or warlike purposes, were small in size and frail in structure.

The Jews cannot be said to have been a seafaring people; yet their position on the map of the world is such as to lead us to feel that they could not have been ignorant of ships and the business which relates thereunto. Phoenicia, the north-western part of Palestine, was unquestionably among, if not at the head of, the earliest cultivators of maritime affairs. Then the Holy Land itself lay with one side coasting a sea which was anciently the great highway of navigation, and the center of social and commercial enterprise. Within its own borders it had a navigable lake. And the Red Sea itself, which conducted towards the remote east, was at no great distance even from the capital of the land. Then at different points in its long line of sea-coast there were harbors of no mean repute. Yet the decidedly agricultural bearing of the Israelitish constitution checked such a development of power, activity, and wealth, as these favorable opportunities might have called forth on behalf of seafaring pursuits. And it is evident that the Israelites must have only partially improved their local advantages, since we find Hiram, king of Tyre, acting as carrier by sea for Solomon, engaging to convey in floats to Joppa the timber cut in Lebanon for the temple, and leaving to the Hebrew prince the duty of transporting the wood from the coast to Jerusalem. And when, after having conquered Elath and Ezion-geber on the further arm of the Red Sea, Solomon proceeded to convert them into naval stations for his own purposes, he was still, whatever he did himself, indebted to Hiram for ‘shipmen that had knowledge of the sea’ (1Ki 9:26; 1Ki 10:22).

Fig. 320Ancient Light-vessel, Pompeii

The reader of the New Testament is well aware how frequently he finds himself with the Savior on the romantic shores of the Sea of Gennesareth. There Jesus is seen, now addressing the people from on board a vessel (Mat 13:2; Luk 5:3); now sailing up and down the Lake (Mat 8:23; Mat 9:1; Mat 14:13; Joh 6:17). Some of his earliest disciples were proprietors of barks which sailed on this inland sea (Mat 4:21; Joh 21:3; Luk 5:3). But it is evident that these ‘ships’ must have been small, though they were more than mere boats.

The vessels connected with Biblical history were for the most part ships of burden, almost indeed exclusively so, at least within the period of known historical facts. In a ship of this kind was Paul conveyed to Italy. They were, for the purposes to which they were destined, rounder and deeper than ships of war, and sometimes of great capacity. In consequence of their bulk, and when laden, of their weight, they were impelled by sails rather than by oars. On the prow stood the insignia from which the ship was named, and by which it was known. These in Acts (Act 28:11) are called ‘sign’ which it appears consisted in this case of figures of Castor and Pollux, brilliant constellations, auspicious to navigators. Each ship was provided with a boat, intended in the case of peril to facilitate escape (Act 27:16; Act 27:30; Act 27:32), and several anchors (Act 27:29; Act 27:40); also a plumb-line for sounding (Act 27:28). Mention is made (Act 27:40) of a ‘mainsail,’ which, however, should probably be rather termed the ‘topsail.’ In great danger it was customary to gird the vessel with cables, in order to prevent her from falling to pieces under the force of wind and sea (Act 27:17). The captain was denominated steersman, though he was a different person from him who had the actual charge of the helm.

The dangers of the ocean to sailors on board such ships as these were, and in the then ignorance of navigation, caused sailing to be restricted to the months of spring, summer, and autumn; winter was avoided. To the Romans the sea was opened in March and closed in November (Act 27:9); and ships which towards the end of the year were still at sea earnestly sought a harbor in which to pass the winter (Act 27:12).

Fuente: Popular Cyclopedia Biblical Literature

Ship

The Israelites were not a maritime people. Solomon had a ‘navy of ships’ at Ezion Geber, the eastern branch of the Red Sea; but Hiram sent his shipmen ‘that had knowledge of the sea’ with the servants of Solomon. Ships of Tharshish are also mentioned both in connection with Solomon and Jehoshaphat. 1Ki 9:26-27; 1Ki 10:11; 1Ki 10:22; 1Ki 22:48-49; 2Ch 20:36-37; Psa 48:7. The ships so often mentioned on the Sea of Galilee in the Gospels were what are now called fishing boats, and were used as such. The ships in which Paul sailed on the Mediterranean were of course larger; those in which he was taken to Rome are well described by Luke in the Acts of the Apostles: the ship wrecked at Malta was evidently an Alexandrian wheat-ship. The nautical terms employed by Luke show that he was well acquainted with maritime subjects. Acts 27. The word for GALLEY in Isa 33:21 is the same as that translated ‘navy’ in the Kings.

Fuente: Concise Bible Dictionary

Ship

Built by:

– Noah

Gen 6:13-22

– Solomon

1Ki 9:26; 2Ch 8:17

– Jehoshaphat

1Ki 22:48; 2Ch 20:35-36

Built of:

– Gopher wood

Gen 6:14

– Fir wood

Eze 27:5

– Bulrushes

Isa 18:2

Sealed with pitch

Gen 6:15

Equipped with:

– Helm

Jas 3:4

– Rudder

Act 27:40

– Tackling

Isa 33:23; Act 27:19

– Sails

Isa 33:23; Act 27:1; Act 27:9; Act 27:17; Act 27:40

– Sails embroidered

Eze 27:7

– Masts

Isa 33:23; Eze 27:5

– Oars

Jon 1:13; Mar 6:48

– Figurehead

Act 28:11

– Anchor

Act 27:29-30; Act 27:40; Heb 6:19

– Life boats

Act 27:30; Act 27:32

Used in commerce:

– General references

Act 21:3; Act 27:10

– With Tarshish

1Ki 22:48; Isa 60:9; Jon 1:3

– With Ophir

1Ki 10:11; 2Ch 8:18

– With Adramyttium

Act 27:2

Used for passenger traffic

Isa 60:9; Jon 1:3; Act 20:13; Act 27:2; Act 27:37; Act 28:11

Used for ferriage

2Sa 19:18

Repaired by calking

Eze 27:9

Wrecked at:

– Eziongeber

1Ki 22:48; 2Ch 20:35-37

– Melita

Act 27:14; Act 27:44

Warships used by Chittim

Num 24:24; Dan 11:30 Mariner

Fuente: Nave’s Topical Bible

Ship

Ship. No one writer in the whole range of Greek and Roman literature has supplied us with so much information concerning the merchant-ships of the ancients as St. Luke in the narrative of St. Paul’s voyage to Rome. Acts 27,28. It is important to remember that he accomplished it in three ships: first, the Adramyttian vessel which took him from Caesarea to Myra, and which was probably a coasting-vessel of no great size, Act 27:1-6, secondly, the large Alexandrian corn-ship, in which he was wrecked on the coast of Malta, Act 27:6-28; and thirdly, another large Alexandrian corn-ship, in which he sailed from Malta by Syracuse and Rhegium to Puteoli. Act 28:11-13.

Size of ancient ships. — The narrative which we take as our chief guide affords a good standard for estimating this. The ship, in which St. Paul was wrecked had persons on board, Act 27:37, besides a cargo of wheat, Act 27:10; Act 27:38, and all these passengers seem to have been taken on to Puteoli in another ship, Act 28:11, which had its own crew and its own cargo. Now, in modern transport-ships, prepared far carrying troops, it is a common estimate to allow a toll and a half per man. On the whole, if we say that an ancient merchant-ship might range from 500 to 1000 tons, we are clearly within the mark.

Steering apparatus. — Some commentators have fallen into strange perplexities from observing that in Act 27:40, (“the fastenings of the rudders”); St. Luke uses the plural. Ancient ships were, in truth, not steered at all by rudders fastened or hinged to the stern, but by means of two paddle-rudders one on each quarter, acting in a rowlock or through a port-hole as the vessel might be small or large.

Build and ornaments of the hull. — It is probable that there was no very marked difference between the bow and the stern. The “hold,” Jon 1:5, would present no special peculiarities. That personification of ships which seems to be instinctive led the ancients to paint an eye on each side of the bow. Compare Act 27:15. An ornament of the ship which took Paul from Malta to Pozzuoli is more explicitly referred to. The “sign” of that ship, Act 28:11, was Castor and Pollux; and the symbols of those heroes were doubtless painted or sculptured on each side of the bow.

Under-girders. — The imperfection of the build, and still more (see below, 6) the peculiarity of the rig, in ancient ships, resulted in a greater tendency than in our times, to the starting of the pranks, and consequently to leaking and foundering. Hence, it was customary to take on board peculiar contrivances, suitable called “helps,” Act 27:17, as precautions against such dangers. These were simply cables or chains, which, in case of necessity, could be passed round the frame of the ship, at right angles to its length, and made tight.

Anchors. — Ancient anchors were similar in form to those which we use now, except that they were without flukes. The ship in which Paul was sailing had four anchors on board. The sailors on this occasion anchored by the stern. Act 27:29.

Masts, sails, ropes and yards. — The rig of an ancient ship was more simple and clumsy than that employed in modern times. Its great feature was one large mast, with one large square sail fastened to a yard of great length. Hence, the strain upon the hull, and the danger of starting the planks, were greater than under the present system, which distributes the mechanical pressure more evenly over the whole ship.

Not that there were never more masts than one, or more sails than one on the same mast, in an ancient merchantman; but these were repetitions, so to speak, of the same general unit of rig. Another feature of the ancient, as of the modern, feature of the ancient, as of ship is the flag at the top of the mast. Isaiah l.c., and Isa 30:17. We must remember that the ancients had no compass, and very imperfect charts and instruments, if any at all.

Rate of sailing. — St. Paul’s voyages furnish excellent data for approximately estimating this; and they are quite in harmony with what we learn from other sources. We must notice here, however — what commentators sometimes curiously forget — that winds are variable. That the voyage between Troas and Philippi, accomplished on one occasion, Act 16:11-12, in two days, occupied on another occasion, Act 20:6, five days. With a fair wind, an ancient ship would sail fully seven knots an hour.

Sailing before the wind. — The rig which has been described is, like the rig of Chinese junks, peculiarly favorable to a quick run before the wind. Act 16:11; Act 27:16. It would, however, be a great mistake to suppose that ancient ships could not work to windward. The superior rig and build, however, of modern ships enable them to sail nearer to the wind than was the case in classical times. A modern ship, if the weather is not very boisterous, will sail within six points of the wind. To an ancient vessel, of which the hull was more clumsy and the yards could not be braced so tight, it would be safe to assign seven points as the limit.

Boats on the Sea of Galilee. — In the narrative of the call of the disciples to be “fishers of men,” Mat 4:18-22; Mar 1:16; Mar 1:20; Luk 5:1-11, there is no special information concerning the characteristics of these. With the large population around the Lake of Tiberias, there must have been a vast number of both fishting boats and pleasure boats, and boat building must have been an active trade on its shores.

Fuente: Smith’s Bible Dictionary

Ship

Pro 30:19 (b) This indicates the remarkable guidance of the Lord in directing His own through the trackless lanes of life and bringing them safely to the desired haven.

Fuente: Wilson’s Dictionary of Bible Types

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