Introduction, Biblical
introduction, Biblical
A theological science which establishes the principles and proximately prepares the student of Scripture to defend and interpret Holy Writ. It treats of the Divine and human origin and the collection and preservation of the books of the Bible. Introduction may be general or special. General introduction discusses questions concerning the Bible in its entirety. Its scope is usually narrowed considerably by regarding biblical theology, archaeology , geography, and history as distinct sciences. Inspiration , the Canon or collection of the sacred books, their text and translations, the laws and history of their interpretation are properly regarded today as general introductory questions; see also hermeneutics and exegesis . Special introduction discusses the Divine and human authorship, the date and place of composition, the purpose, analysis, and division of contents, the integrity and veracity of each book of the Bible. The method of treatment is literary but at the same time critical and historical, because the Bible is literature and contains and teaches history. Since the Bible is a Divinely inspired book committed to the custodianship of the Church whose duty is to safeguard Holy Writ and its exposition against erroneous, capricious, and wilful treatment, biblical introduction must not be considered merely as a chapter of universal literature, but as a theological science which calls literary and historical criticism to its aid, and thus offers scientific proof that all the books of the Bible are what the Church teaches them to be, canonical and inspired, and preserved to us substantially unaltered and free from falsification. In patristic and medieval times questions of biblical introduction were treated incidentally, e.g., by Origen and Jerome; more systematically by Cassiodorus. The separate questions were not grouped into a system until the time of Sixtus of Sienna (died 1599). The Oratorian , Richard Simon (died 1712) applied to the subject the critico-historical method. His objective criticism supported by external argument was methodically correct. Since the close of the 18th century rationalistic Bible study has given incentive and impetus to the publication of Catholic works of biblical introduction. Scholars other than Catholic have marred their introductory studies, quite generally, by subjectivism and radicalism. Undue insistence upon internal arguments has led them to no certain results, and today, in many quarters, a tendency toward more objective reasoning, made necessary by archeological finds, has checked these lawless methods. The persistent denial of the supernatural is still characteristic of their higher criticism. The objections to the traditional views and the criticism of their historical basis accounts in part for the apologetical and polemical tone of Catholic higher criticism.
Fuente: New Catholic Dictionary
Introduction, Biblical
A technical name which is usually applied to two distinct, but intimately connected, things. First, it designates the part of Scriptural science which is concerned with topics preliminary to the detailed study and correct exposition of Holy Writ. Next, it is given to a work in which these various topics are actually treated.
I. SCOPE AND DIVISIONS
As is commonly admitted at the present day, the general object of Biblical introduction is to supply the student of the sacred books of the Old and New Testaments with the knowledge which is necessary, or at least very desirable, for the right interpretation of their contents. Thus understood, the scope of an introduction to the inspired writings which make up the Bible is substantially that of an introduction to other writings of antiquity. An introduction helps materially the student of the text of these writings to know beforehand and in a precise manner the personal history and actual surroundings of the author to whom each writing is ascribed, to become acquainted with the date of composition and the general form and purpose of the works before him, to acquire familiarity with the leading features of the ancient languages in which the various books were originally written, to realize distinctly the peculiar literary methods employed in their composition, to know something of the various fortunes (alterations, translations, etc.) which have befallen the text in the course of ages, etc. An introduction, too, whether the work for which it is designed be profane or sacred, has usually a limited scope. It is not supposed to treat of each and every topic the knowledge of which might be useful for the right understanding of the books in question. It is justly regarded as sufficient for all practical purposes, when, by the information which it actually imparts, it enables the reader of the works of antiquity to start intelligently on the detailed study of their text. Owing, however, to the fact that the books of the Bible are not simply ancient, but also inspired, writings, the scope of Biblical introduction embraces the various questions which are connected with their inspired character, and which, of course, have no place in an introduction to merely human productions. For this same reason, too, certain topics — such as the questions of integrity and veracity — which naturally belong to treatises preliminary to the study of any ancient writing, assume a very special importance in Biblical introduction.
Biblical introduction is frequently, and indeed aptly, divided into two parts, general and special, the former embracing the preliminary questions which concern the Bible as a whole, the latter being restricted to those which refer to the separate books of Holy Writ. The field of general introduction has long been, and is still, surveyed from different standpoints by Biblical scholars. It no longer embraces a detailed description of the Oriental languages and of the Hellenistic Greek, but is universally limited, in regard to those languages, to a brief exposition of their leading characteristics. With regard to the questions which pertain to the antiquities, geography and chronology of the Bible, some scholars are still of the opinion that they should be dealt with in a general introduction to the study of the Holy Scriptures; most, however — and rightly, as it seems — think that they do not belong to the field of general introduction; the proper place for such topics is either in special treatises or in the body of works on Biblical history. Again, a certain number of scholars regard as forming a part of general introduction the history of God’s chosen people, of Divine Revelation, of Biblical theology, of the religious institutions of Israel. They rightly urge that a previous acquaintance with that history is invaluable in the pursuit of Biblical exegesis. It remains true, however, that the study of the historical, doctrinal, etc., contents of Holy Writ is usually considered outside the sphere of general introduction, and may be more profitably followed in distinct treatises bearing the respective names of sacred history, history of Biblical Revelation, Biblical theology, history of the religion of Israel. It thus appears that, at the present day, the tendency is to restrict the object of general introduction to a few questions, particularly to those which help directly to determine the value and meaning of the Sacred Writings considered as a whole. In point of fact, that object, as conceived especially by Catholics, is limited to the great questions of the inspired and canonical character of the Scriptures, their original text and principal translations, the principles and history of their interpretation. As already stated, special introduction deals with the preliminary topics which concern the separate books of the Bible. It is very naturally divided into special introduction to the Old Testament and special introduction to the New Testament. As the Divine authority of the books of either Testament is established by the study of the general introduction to the Bible, so the topics treated in the special introduction are chiefly those which bear on the human authority of the separate writings of the Bible. Hence the questions usually studied in connexion with each book or with a small group of books, such for instance as the Pentateuch, are those of authorship, unity, integrity, veracity, purpose, source of information, date and place of composition, etc. Instead of the divisions of Biblical introduction which have been set forth, numerous writers, particularly in Germany, adopt a very different grouping of the topics preliminary to the exegetical study of the Sacred Scriptures. They do away with the division of Biblical introduction into general and special, and treat of all the questions which they connect with the books of the Old Testament in an “Introduction to the Old Testament” and of all those which they examine with reference to the books of the New Testament in an “Introduction to the New Testament”. In either “Introduction” they ordinarily devote a first section to the topics which refer to the contents, date, authorship, etc. of the separate books, and a second section to a more or less brief statement of the canon, text and versions, etc. of the same books considered collectively. Their distribution of the topics of Biblical introduction leaves no room for hermeneutics, or scientific exposition of the principles of exegesis, and in this respect, at least, is inferior to the division of Biblical introduction into general and special, with its comprehensive subdivisions.
II. NATURE AND METHOD OF TREATMENT
Catholic scholars justly regard Biblical introduction as a theological science. They are indeed fully aware of the possibility of viewing it in a different light, of identifying it with a literary history of the various books which make up the Bible. They distinctly know that this is actually done by many writers outside of the Church, who are satisfied with applying to the Holy Scriptures the general principles of historical criticism. But they rightly think that in so doing these writers lose sight of essential differences which exist between the Bible and merely human literature, and which should be taken into account in defining the nature of Biblical introduction. Considered in their actual origin, the sacred books which make up the Bible have alone a Divine authorship which must needs differentiate Biblical introduction from all mere literary history, and impart to it a distinctly theological character. In view of this, Biblical introduction must be conceived as an historical elucidation, not simply of the human and outward origin and characteristics of the sacred records, but also of that which makes them sacred books, viz., the operation of the Holy Ghost Who inspired them. Again, of all existing literatures, the Bible alone has been entrusted to the guardianship of a Divinely constituted society, whose plain duty it is to ensure the right understanding and correct exposition of the written word of God, by seeing that the topics preliminary to its exegesis be fittingly treated by Biblical introduction. Whence it readily follows that Biblical introduction is, by its very nature, a theological discipline, promoting, under the authoritative guidance of the Church, the accurate knowledge of Divine Revelation embodied in Holy Writ. For these and for other no less conclusive reasons, Catholic scholars positively refuse to reduce Biblical introduction to a mere literary history of the various books which make up the Bible, and strenuously maintain its essential character as a theological science. While doing so, however, they do not intend in the least to deny that the topics which fall within its scope should be handled by means of the historico-critical method. In fact, they distinctly affirm that Biblical introduction should be both historical and critical. According to them, constant appeal must be made to history as to a valuable source of scientific information concerning the questions preliminary to the study of the Bible, and also a witness whose positive testimony, especially with regard to the origin and the transmission of the Sacred Books, no one can lightly set aside without laying himself open to the charge of prejudice. According to them, too, the art of criticism must be judiciously employed in the study of Biblical introduction. It is plain, on the one hand, that the science of Biblical introduction can be said to rest on a solid historical basis only in so far as the data supplied by the study of the past are correctly appreciated, that is, are accepted and set forth as valid to the precise extent in which they can stand the test of sound criticism. It is no less plain, on the other hand, “that nothing is to be feared for the Sacred Books, from the true advance of the art of criticism; nay more, that a beneficial light may be derived from it, provided its use be coupled with a real prudence and discernment” (Pius X, 11 Jan., 1906).
III. HISTORY
As a distinct theological discipline, Biblical introduction is indeed of a comparatively recent origin. Centuries, however, before its exact object and proper method of study had been fixed, attempts had been made at supplying the readers and expositors of Holy Writ with a certain amount of information whereby they would be more fully prepared for the better understanding of the Sacred Writings. In view of this, the history of Biblical introduction may be extended back to the early years of the Church, and made to include three principal periods: patristic times; Middle Ages; recent period.
(1) Patristic Times
The early ecclesiastical writers were directly concerned with the exposition of Christian doctrines, so that their works relative to Holy Writ are distinctly hermeneutical, and present only occasionally some material which may be utilized for the treatment of the questions which pertain to Biblical introduction. Of the same general nature are the writings of St. Jerome, although his prefaces to the various books of Scripture, some of his treatises and of his letters deal explicitly with certain introductory topics. St. Augustine’s important work, “De Doctrinâ Christianâ”, is chiefly a hermeneutical treatise, and deals with only a few questions of introduction in book II, chapters viii-xv. One of the writers most frequently mentioned in connexion with the first period in the history of Biblical introduction is a certain Greek, Adrian (died about A. D. 450), who is probably the same as the Adrian addressed by St. Nilus as a monk and a priest. He certainly belonged to the Antiochene school of exegesis, and was apparently a pupil of St. John Chrysostom. He is the author of a work entitled Eisagoge eis tas Theias Graphas, “Introduction to the Divine Scriptures”, which has indeed supplied the specific name of introduction for the theological science treating of topics preliminary to the study of Holy Writ, but which, in fact, is simply a hermeneutical treatise dealing with the style of the sacred writers and the figurative expressions of the Bible (P. G., XCVIII). The other principal writers of that period are: St. Eucherius of Lyons (died about 450), whose two books, “Instructiones ad Salonium filium”, are rather a hermeneutical than an introductory work; the Benedictine Cassiodorus (died about 562), whose treatise “De institutione Divinarum Scripturarum” sums up the views of earlier writers and gives an important list of Biblical interpreters, chiefly Latin; the African bishop Junilius (died about 552), who belongs to the school of Nisibis, and whose “Instituta regularia divinæ legis” resembles most a Biblical introduction in the modern sense of the expression; lastly, St. Isidore of Seville (died 636), whose “Etymologiæ” and “Proœmia in libros V. et N. Testamenti” supply useful material for the study of Biblical introduction.
(2) Middle Ages
During this period, as during the one just described, the preoccupations of the ecclesiastical writers were chiefly doctrinal and exegetical, and their methods of study had usually little to do with the historico-critical method of investigation by means of which, as we have seen, questions introductory to the interpretation of the Bible should be treated. Most of them were satisfied with a mere repetition of what had been said by St. Jerome, St. Augustine, and Cassiodorus. This they did in the prefaces which they prefixed to their commentaries on the Sacred Books, and the purpose of which is directly hermeneutical. The only remarkable work on introduction produced in the Middle Ages is the one which the Jewish convert Nicholas of Lyra (died 1340) placed at the beginning of his “Postilla Perpetua”, and in which he treats of the canonical and uncanonical books, the versions of the Bible, the various senses of Holy Writ, and the rules of interpretation.
(3) Recent Period
This is by far the most important and most fruitful period in the history of Biblical introduction. Since the sixteenth century this branch of theological learning has been more and more cultivated as a distinct science, and has gradually assumed its present form. The first work of this period was published at Venice, in 1566, by the Dominican Sixtus of Siena (died 1599). It is entitled “Bibliotheca sancta ex præcipuis Catholicæ Ecclesiæ auctoribus collecta”, and treats in eight books of the sacred writers and their works, of the best manner of translating and explaining Holy Writ, and gives a copious list of Biblical interpreters. Among the Catholic authors on introduction who soon followed Sixtus the following deserve a special mention: Arias Montanus (died 1598), whose “Prolegomena” in his Polyglot (Antwerp, 1572) forms a valuable introduction; Salmeron (died 1585), whose “Prolegomena Biblica” appears in the first volume of his works (Madrid, 1598); Serarius (died 1642) whose “Præloquia” (Antwerp, 1625) was selected by Migne as the most suitable general introduction with which to begin his “Sacræ Scripturæ Cursus Completus”; the Oratorian Lami (died 1715), the learned writer of the “Apparatus ad Biblia sacra” (Paris, 1687); the Benedictine Martianay (died 1717); and the able theologian Ellies Dupin (died 1719). Meantime the Protestants, somewhat belated by doctrinal bias, brought forth a certain number of general introductions, among which may be mentioned those of Rivet (Dordrecht, 1616); Walther (Leipzig, 1636); Calov (Wittenberg, 1643); Brian Walton (London, 1637); and Heidegger (Zurich, 1681) The first scholar to depart from the unsatisfactory method of treating topics preliminary to the study of Holy Writ which had hitherto prevailed, and which had made some of the writings of his immediate predecessors dogmatic treatises rather than works on Biblical introduction, was the French Oratorian Richard Simon (1638-1712). According to him the Sacred Books, no less than the various Biblical translations and commentaries, are literary products which must bear the impress of the ideas and the methods of composition prevalent at the time when they were written, so that, to view and appreciate these works aright, one should study them carefully in themselves and in the light of the historical events under which they came into existence. A study at once historical and critical appeared also to him the best means for disposing of unsound theories, and for vindicating the inspired character of the Bible, which had been recently impugned by Hobbes and Spinoza. Hence the name of “Histoire Critique”, which he gave to his epoch-making introductions to the Old Testament (Paris, 1678), to the text (Rotterdam, 1689), versions (Rotterdam, 1690), and commentaries (Rotterdam, 1693) of the New Testament. Simon’s methods and conclusions were at first strenuously opposed, and afterwards set aside by Catholics and by Protestants alike. The most noteworthy works of the eighteenth century on introduction, on the basis of the ancient method, are, among Catholics, those of Calmet (Paris, 1707-20); Goldhagen (Mainz, 1765-68); Fabricy (Rome, 1772); Marchini (Turin, 1777); and Mayer (Vienna, 1789); and, among Protestants, those of Hody (Oxford, 1705); Carpzov (Leipzig, 1721-28); J. D. Michaelis (Göttingen, 1750; Hamburg, 1787).
The true method of Biblical introduction set forth and applied by Simon was not destined, however, to be discarded forever. The rationalists were the first to use it, or rather to abuse it, for their anti-dogmatic purposes. Ever since the latter part of the eighteenth century, they, and those more or less affected by rationalistic tendencies, have very often openly, and at times with rare ability, treated Biblical introduction as a mere literary history of the Sacred Writings. As belonging to the critical school, the following writers on introductory topics may be mentioned: Semler (died 1791); Eichhorn (died 1827); de Wette (died 1849); Bleek (died 1859); Vatke (died 1882); Riehm (died 1888); Kuenen (died 1891); Reuss (died 1891); Scholten; Hilgenfeld; Wellhausen; W.R. Smith (died 1894); S. Davidson (died 1898); Strack; Wildeboer; E. Kautzsch; F. E. Koenig; Jülicher; Cornill; Baudissin; H. Holtzmann; Bacon; Budde; Cheyne; Kent; Moffatt; Von Soden; Pfleiderer; to whom may be added, as occupying in the main similar positions, B. Weiss; Salmon; Driver; A. B. Davidson (died 1902); Curtiss (died 1904); Ottley; Kirkpatrick; Ryle; Briggs; Bennett; Adeney; C. H. H. Wright; McFayden; and Geden. The following are the principal Protestant writers who meantime have striven to stay the progress of the critical school by treating the questions of Biblical introduction on conservative lines: Hengstenberg (died 1869); Hofmann (died 1877); Hävernick (died 1845); Keil (died 1888); Bissell; Gloag; Godet (died 1900); Westcott (died 1902); Harman; Sayce; Sanday; Green (died 1900); Dods; Kerr; Burkitt; Zahn; Mackay; Urquhart; and Orr.
During the same period Catholics have produced numerous works on Biblical introduction, and used in them, in various degrees, the historico-critical method of investigation. These works may be briefly given under four general heads, as follows: General Introduction to Holy Writ: Dixon, “Intr. to the Sacred Scriptures” (Dublin, 1852); Trochon, “Introd. générale” (Paris, 1886-87); Chauvin, “Leçons d’Int. générale” (Paris, 1897); Breen, “General and Critical Introd. to the Holy Scripture” (Rochester, 1897); Gigot, “General Introd. to the H. Script.” (New York, 1899); Telch, “Intr. Generalis in Scripturam Sacram” (Ratisbon, 1908). General and Special Introd. to both Testaments: Alber, “Institutiones Scrip. Sac. Antiq. et Novi Test.” (Budapest, 1801-08); Scholz, “Allgem. Einleit. in die heilige Schrift des A. und N. T.” (Cologne, 1845-48); Glaire, “Introd. historiq. et critiq. aux Livres de l’A. et du N. T.” (Paris, 1838-); Haneberg, “Geschichte der bibl. Offenbarung als Einleitung ins alte und neue Testam.” (Ratisbon, 1849); Gilly, “Préeis d’Introd. générale et particulière à l’Ecrit. Ste” (Nimes, 1867); Lamy, “Introd. in Sac. Scripturam” (Mechlin, 1867); Danko, “Hist. Revelationis divinæ V. T.” ( Vienna, 1852); Idem, “Hist. Rev. divinæ N. T.” ( Vienna, 1867); Kaulen, “Einleitung in die heilige Schrift des A. und N. T.” (Freiburg im Br., 1876); Vigouroux and Bacuez, “Manuel Biblique” (Paris, 1879); Ubaldi, “Introd. in Sacr. Script.” (Rome, 1877-81); Cornely, “Introd. historica et critica in U. T. libros” (Paris, 1885-87); Trochon and Lesêtre, “Introd. à l’Etude de l’Ecrit. Sainte” (Paris, 1889-90); Barry, “The Tradition of Scripture” (New York, 1906). Special Introd. to the Old Testament: Jahn, “Einleit. in die göttliche Bücher des A. Bundes” (Vienna, 1793); Ackermann, “Introd. in lib. sacros V. Test.” (Vienna, 1825-9); Herbst, “Hist. Krit. Einleitung in die heilige Schriften des A. T.” (Karlsruhe, 1840-44); Reusch, “Lehrbuch der Einl. in das A. T.” (Freiburg im Br., 1864); Zschokke, “Hist. sacra V. T.” (Vienna, 1872); Neteler, “Abriss der alttest. Literaturgeschichte” (Münster, 1870); Martin, “Intr. à la Critique générale do l’A. T.” (Paris, 1886-89); Schöpfer, ‘Gesch. des A. T.” (Brixen, 1894); Gigot, “Special Intr. to O. T.” (New York, 1901, 1906). Special Introduct. to the New Testament: Feilmoser, “Einl. in die Bücher des N. Bundes” (Innsbruck, 1810); Unterkircher, “Einl. in die B. des N. T.” (Innsbruck, 1810); Hug, “Einl. in die heil. Schriften des N. T.” (Tübingen, 1808); Reithmayer “Einl. in die kanonisch. B. des N. T.” (Ratisbon, 1852); Maier, “Einl. in die Schrif. des N. T.” (Freiburg im Br., 1852); Markf, “Introd. in sacros libros N. T.” (Budapest, 1856); Güntner, “Introd. in sacros N. T. libros” (Prague, 1863); Langen, “Grundriss der Einleitung das N. T.” (Freiburg im Br., 1868); Aberle, “Einl. in das N. T.” (Freiburg im Br., 1877); Trenkle, “Einl. in das N. T.” (Freiburg im Br., 1897); Schaefer, “Einl. in das N. T.” (Paderborn, 1898); Belser, “Einl. in das N. T.” (Freiburg im Br., 1901); Jacquier, “Histoire des Livres du N. T.” (Paris, 1904-08); Brassac, “Nouveau Testament” (Paris, 1908, 1909), twelfth recast edition of vols. III and IV of Vigouroux’s “Manuel Biblique”.
From among the introductory works recently published by Jewish scholars the following may be mentioned: J. Fürst, “Geschichte der biblischen Literatur und des judisch-hellenistischen Schriftens” (Leipzig, 1867-70); Cassel, “Geschichte der judischen Literatur” (Berlin, 1872-73); J. S. Bloch, “Studien zur Geschichte der Sammlung der A. Literatur” (Leipzig, 1875); A. Geiger, “Einleitung in die biblischen Schriften” (Berlin, 1877); Wogue, “Histoire de la Bible et de l’Exégèse biblique jusqu’à nos jours” (Paris, 1881). Besides the separate works on Biblical introduction which have been mentioned, valuable contributions to that branch of Scriptural science are found in the shape of articles in the Dictionaries of the Bible and the general encyclopedias already published or yet issuing.
———————————–
FRANCIS E. GIGOT Transcribed by Douglas J. Potter Dedicated to the Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VIIICopyright © 1910 by Robert Appleton CompanyOnline Edition Copyright © 2003 by K. KnightNihil Obstat, October 1, 1910. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., CensorImprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York
Fuente: Catholic Encyclopedia
Introduction, Biblical
is now the technical designation for works which aim to furnish a general view of such subjects and questions as are preliminary to a proper exposition of the sacred books, the corresponding branch of Biblical science being often styled ISAGOGICS, in a strict sense. The word introduction being of rather vague signification, there was also formerly no definite idea attached to the expression Biblical Introduction. In works on this’ subject (as-in Home’s Introduction) might be found contents belonging to geography, antiquities, interpretation, natural history, and other branches of knowledge. Even the usual contents of Biblical introductions were so unconnected that Schleiermacher, in his Kurze Darstellung des Theologischen Studiums, justly calls it ein Mancherlei; that is, a farrago or omnium-gatherum. Biblical introduction was usually described as consisting o’ the various branches of preparatory knowledge requisite for viewing and treating the Bible correctly. It was distinguished from Biblical history and archaeology by being less intimately connected with what is usually called history. It comprised treatises on the origin of the Bible, on the original languages, on the translations, and on the history of the sacred text, and was divided into general and special introduction. An endeavor to remove this vagueness by furnishing a firm definition of Biblical introduction was made by Dr. Credner (in his Einleitung, noticed below).
He defined Biblical introduction to be the history of the Bible, and divided it into the following parts:
1. The history of the separate Biblical books;
2, the history of the collection of these books, or of the canon;
3, the history of the spread of these books, or of the translations of it;
4, the history of the preservation-of the text;
5, the history of the interpretation of it.
The same historical idea has been advocated by Havernick (in his Einleit.), and more particularly by Hupfeld (Begrif’ u. Methode der bibl. Einl. 1844). This view, however, has not generally been acquiesced in by Biblical scholars, being regarded as too limited and special a treatment, inasmuch as the end in view is to furnish a solution of such questions as arise upon the Bible as a book, yet excluding such preparatory sciences in general as philology, archaeology, and exegesis, the first two of which rather relate to all ancient writings, and the last to passages in detail. By common consent, treatises on Biblical introduction have now usually come to embrace the field covered by the articles on the several books as given in this Cyclopaedia, and the topics legitimately included in this department of Biblical science may briefly be summed up under the following heads, which may, however, sometimes require to be differently arranged, or even combined: 1, Authorship; 2, date; 3, place; 4, inspiration; 5, contents; 6, style; 7, peculiar difficulties-of the several books, with the literature and commentaries appended. In this way the old division of general and special introduction is preserved only so far that some treatises are on all the books of the Old or New Testament in order, while others take up a single book only the latter usually as prolegomena to a separate commentary; and the wider topics formerly discussed are relegated to their appropriate and separate spheres, e.g. in addition to Archaeology (including Geography, Chronology, History, and Antiquities proper), Lexicology (including radical and comparative philology, and synonyms), and Grammar (including all the peculiarities of Hebraistic and Hellenistic phraseology, poetical modes of expression, rhetorical traits. etc.) the following more especially: the Canon, Criticism, Inspiration, and Interpretation (q.v. severally). With’ these prefatory distinctions, we proceed to give a sketch of the historical development of this department of Biblical Science, with some criticisms upon the several works in which it has been evolved. In these remarks we especially include formal treatises upon the subject at large, besides those found in commentaries; see also Bleek’s Introd. to the O.T. (Lond. 1869), 1, 5 sq.
The Greek word , in the sense of an introduction to a science, occurs only in later Greek, and was first used, to denote an introduction to the right understanding of the Bible, by Adrian, a Greek who probably lived in the 5th century after Christ. is a small book, the object of which is to assist readers who are unacquainted with Biblical phraseology in rightly understanding peculiar words and expressions. It was first edited by David Hoschel, under the title of Adriani Isagoge in Sacram Scripturam Grcece cumi Scholiis (Augustse Vindobonae, 1602, 4to), and was reprinted in the Critici Sacri (London ed. vol. 8; Frankfort edit. vol. 6). Before Adrian, the want of similar works had already been felt, and books of a corresponding tendency were in circulation, but they did not bear the title of . Melito of Sardis, who lived in the latter half of the 2nd century, wrote a book under the title , being a key both to the Old and to the New Testament. The so- called , which were written at a later period, are books of a similar description. Some of these have been printed, in Matthew’s Novum Testamentum Graeca, and in Boissonade’s Anecdota Graeca (vol. 3, Paris, 1831). These are merely linguistic introductions; but there was soon felt the want of works which might solve other questions, such as, for instance, what are the principles which should guide us in Biblical interpretation? The Donatist Ticonius wrote, about the year 380, Regulae ad investigandanm et inveniendam Intelligentiam Scripturarum Septem. St. Augustine, in his work De Doctrin Christiana (3, 302), says concerning these seven rules that the author’s intention was by means of them to open the secret sense of Holy Writ, as if by a key. There arose also a question concerning the extent of Holy Writ-that is to say, what belonged, and what did not belong to Holy Writ; and also respecting the contents of the separate Biblical books, and the order in which they should follow each other, etc. About A.D. 550, Cassiodorus wrote his Imstitutiones Divinae. He mentions in this work, under the name of Introductores Divinae Scripturae, five authors who had been engaged in Biblical investigations, and in his tenth chapter speaks of them thus: Let us eagerly return to the guides to Holy Writ; that is to say, to the Donatist Ticonius, to St. Augustine on Christian doctrine, to Adrian, Eucherius, and Junillus, whom I have sedulously collected, in order that works of a similar purport might be combined in one volume. Henceforward the title Introductio in Scripturam Sacrum was established, and remained current for all works in which were solved questions introductory to the study of the Bible. In the Western or Latin Church, during a thousand years, scarcely any addition was made to the collection of Cassiodorus, while in the Eastern or Greek Church only two works written during this long period deserve to be mentioned, both bearing the title . One of these works is falsely ascribed to Athanasius, and the other as falsely to Chrysostom.
The Dominican friar Santes Pagninus, with the intention of reviewing the Biblical knowledge of Jerome and St. Augustine, published his Isagoge ad Sacras Literas, liber unicus (Coloniae, 1540, fol.), a work which, considering the time of its appearance, was a great step in advance.
The work of the Dominican friar Sixtus of Sienna, Bibliotheca Sancta ex precipuis Catholice Ecclesice auctoribus collecta, et in octo libros digesta (Venetiis, 1566; frequently reprinted), is of greater importance, although it is manifestly written under the influence of the Inquisition, which had just been restored, and is perceptibly shackled by the decrees of the Council of Trent; but Sixtus furnished also a list of books to be used by a true Catholic Christian for the right understanding of Holy Writ, as well as the principles which should guide a Roman Catholic in criticism and interpretation. The decrees of the Council of Trent prevented the Roman Catholics from moving freely in the field of Biblical investigation, while the Protestants zealously carried out their researches in various directions. The Illyrian, Matthias Flacius, in his Clavis Scripturea Sacrce, seu de Sermone Sacrarum Literarums (Basle, 1567, in folio), furnished an excellent work on Biblical Hermeneutics; but it was surpassed by the Prolegomena of Brian Walton, which belong to his celebrated Biblia Sacra Polyglotta (Lond. 1657, six vols. fol.). These Prolegomena contain much that will always be accounted valuable and necessary for the true criticism of the sacred text. They have been published separately, with notes, by archdeacon Wrangham (1528, 2 vols. 8vo). Thus we have seen that excellent works were produced on isolated portions of Biblical introduction, but they were not equaled in merit by the works in which it was attempted to furnish a whole system of Biblical introduction. The following Biblical introductions are among the best of those which were published about that period: Rivetus (1627); Michaelis Waltheri Oficina Biblica noviter adaperta, etc. (Lipsiae, first published in 1636); Abraham Calovii Criticus Sacer Biblicus, etc. (Vitembergae, 1643); Hottinger, Thesaur. Philologicus, seu Clavis Script. Sac. (Tiguri, 1649); Heidegger. Enchiridion Biblicum iepoyivl7ovtciv (Tiguri, 1681); Leusden, a Dutchman, published a work entitled Philologus Hebraeus, etc. (Utrecht, 1656); and Phiololgus Hebr. Graecis Generalis (Utrecht, 1670); Pfeiffer (Ultraj. 1704); Van Til (1720-22); Du Pin (1701); Calmet (1720); Moldenhauer (1744); Bbrner (1753); Goldhagen (1765-8); Wagner (1795). Most of these works have frequently been reprinted.
The dogmatical zeal of the Protestants was greatly excited by the work of Louis Capelle, a reformed divine and learned professor at Saumur, which appeared under the title of Ludovici Cappelli Critica Sacra; sire de vaiis quce in veteris Testamenti libris occurrunt lectionibus libri sex (Parisiis, 1650). A learned Roman Catholic and priest of the Oratory, Richard Simon, rightly perceived, from the dogmatical bile stirred up by Capelle, that Biblical criticism was the most effective weapon to be employed against the Protestantism which had grown cold and stiff in dogmatics. He therefore devoted his critical knowledge of the Bible to the service of the Roman Catholic Church, and endeavored to inflict a deathblow upon Protestantism. The result, however, was the production of Simon’s excellent work on Biblical criticism, which became the basis on which the science of Biblical introduction was raised. Simon was the first who correctly, separated the criticism of the Old Testament from that of the New. His works on Biblical introduction appeared under the following titles: Histoire Critique du Vieux Testament (Paris, 1678). This work was inaccurately reprinted at Amsterdam by Elzevir in 1679, and subsequently in many other bad piratical editions. Among these the most complete was that printed, together with several polemical treatises occasioned by this work, at Rotterdam, in 1685, 4to:- Histoire Critique du Texte du Nouveau Testament (Rotterdam, 1689): Histoire Critique des Versions du Nouveau Testament (Rotterdam, 1690):- Histoire Critique des principaux Commentateurs du Nouveau Testament (Rotterd. 1693). By these excellent critical works Simon established a claim upon the gratitude of all real friends of truth; but lie was thanked by none of the prevailing parties in the Christian Church. The Protestants saw in Simon only an enemy of their Church, not the thorough investigator and friend of truth. To the Roman Catholics, on the other hand, Simon’s works appeared to be destructive, because they demonstrated their ecclesiastical decrees to be arbitrary and unhistorical. The Histoire Critique du Nieux Testament was suppressed by the Roman Catholics in Paris immediately after its publication, and in Protestant countries, also, it was forbidden to be reprinted. Nevertheless, the linguistic and truly scientific researches of Pocock; the Oriental school in the Netherlands; the unsurpassed work of Humphry Hody, De Bibliorunm Textibus Originalibus Versionibus, etc. (Oxoniae, 1705, folio); the excellent criticism of Mill, in his Novum Testamentums Grmcumn cum Lectionibus Variantibus (Oxoniae, 1707, folio), which was soon followed by Wetstein’s Novsum Testamnentum Graecums editionis receptum, cum Lectionibus Variantibus (Amstelodami, 175152, folio), and by which even Bengel was convinced, in spite of his ecclesiastical orthodoxy (comp. Bengelii Apparatus Criticus Novi Testamensti, p. 634 sq.); the Biblical works by H. Michaeli, especially his Biblia Hebraica ex a anuscriptis et impressis Codicibus (Halae, 1720), and Kennicott’s Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum cum varisis Lectionibus (Oxon. 1776), and the revival of classical philology-all this gradually led to results which coincided with Simon’s criticism, and showed the enormous difference between historical truth and the arbitrary ecclesiastical opinions which were still prevalent in the works on Biblical introduction by Pritius, Blackwall, Carpiov, Van Til, Moldenhauer, and others. J. D. Michaelis mildly endeavored to reconcile the Church with historical truth, but has been rewarded by the anathemas of the ecclesiastical party, who have pronounced him a heretic. By their ecclesiastical persecutors, Richard Simon was falsely described to be a disciple of the pantheistical Spinoza, and Michaelis as a follower of both Simon and Spinoza. However, the mediating endeavors of Michaelis gradually prevailed. His Einleitung in die Gottlichen Schriften des Neuen Bundes (Gottingen, 1750, 8vo) was greatly improved in later editions, and the fourth (1788, 2 vols. 4to) was translated and essentially augmented by Herbert Marsh, afterwards bishop of Peterborough, under the title Introduction to the New Testament, etc. (Cambridge, 17911801, 4 vols. 8vo). Michaelis commenced also an introduction to the Old Testament, under the title Einleitung in die Gottlichen Schriften des AIten Bundes (Hamburg, 1787). Ed. Harwood’s New Introduction to the Study and Knowledge of the New Testament (London, 1767-71; translated into German by Schulz, Halle, 1770-73, 3 vols.) contains so many heterogeneous materials that it scarcely belongs to the science of introduction.
The study of New-Testament introduction was in Germany especially promoted also by J. S. Semler, who died at Halle in 1791. It was by Semler’s influence that the critical works of Richard Simon were translated into German, and the works of Wetstein re-edited and circulated. The original works of Semler on Biblical introduction are his Apparatuts ad liberalerum Novi Testamensti Interpretationemn (Halae, 1767), and his Abhanedlung vonzfreier Untersuchunyg des Canons (Halle, 1771-5, 4 vols.). Semler’s school produced J. J. Griesbach, who died at Jena in 1812. Griesbach’s labors in correcting the text of the New Testament are of great value. K. A. Halnlein published a work called Handbuch der Einleitlung in die Schriften des Neuen Testasmentes (Erlangen, 1794-1802, 2 vols.), in which he followed the university lectures of Griesbach. A second edition of this work appeared in 1801-9, 3 vols. This introduction contains excellent materials, but is wanting in decisive historical criticism.
J. G. Eichhorn, who died at Gttingen in 1827, was formed in the school of Michaelis at Gttingen, and was inspired by Herder’s poetical views of the East in general, and of the literature of the ancient Hebrews in particular. Eichhorn commenced his Introduction when the times were inclined to give up the Bible altogether as a production of priest craft inapplicable to the present period. He endeavored to bring the contents of the Bible into harmony with modern modes of thinking, to explain, and to recommend them. He sought, by means of hypotheses, to furnish a clew to their origin, without sufficiently regarding strict historical criticism. Eichhorn’s Einleitung in das Alte Testament was first published at Leipsic in 1780-83, in three volumes. The fifth edition was published at Gttingen, 1820-24, in five volumes. His Einleitung in das Neue Testament was first published at Leipzig (1804-27, 5 vols.). The earlier volumes have been republished. The external treatment of the materials, the style, aim, and many separate portions of both works, are masterly and excellent; but, with regard to linguistic and historical research, they are feeble, and overwhelmed with hypotheses. Leonhardt Bertholdt was a very diligent but uncritical compiler. He made a considerable step backwards in the science of introduction. not only by reuniting the Old and Now Testament into one whole, but by even intermixing the separate writings with each other, in his work entitled Historisch-kritische Einleitung in sammtliche kanonische und apocryphische Schriften des Alten und Neuen Testamentes (Erlang. 1812- 19, 6 vols.).
Augusti’s Grundriss einer hist. krit. Einleit. ins A. T. (Lpz. 1806, 1827) contains little new or original.
The Isagoge Historico-critica in Libros Novi Faederis Sacros (Jene, 1830) of H. A. Schott is more distinguished by diligence than by penetration.
The Lehrbuch der Historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel A. und N.T. Berlin (pt. 1, O.T. 1817, and often since; pt. 2, 1826, and later), by W.M. L. de Wette, is distinguished by brevity, precision, critical penetration, and in some parts by completeness. This book contains an excellent survey of the various opinions prevalent in the sphere of Biblical introduction, interspersed with original discussions. Almost every author on Biblical criticism will find that De Wette has made use of his labors; but in the purely historical portion the book is feeble, and indicates that the author did not go to the first sources, but adopted the opinions of others; consequently the work has no internal harmony. An English translation of this work, with additions by the translator, Theodore Parker, has been published in this country (Boston, 1850). A new (the 8th), thoroughly revised edition of the German, not only embodying all the later results of exegetical researches, but also modifying many of the views of De Wette, has recently been published by Prof. E. Schrader (Berl. vol. 1 [O.T.], 1869).
K. A. Credner embodied the results of his method (see above) of the critical examination of the books of the New Testament in his work Dass Neue Testament nach seinerm Zwceck, Usrspruncge und Inhalt (Giessen, 1841-3, 2 vols.). His views are the basis of Reus’s Geschichte der Heiliqen Schriften des Neuen Testamentes (Hallec 1842; 3rd ed. 1860).
The critical investigation which prevailed in Germany after the days of Michaelis has of late been opposed by a mode of treating Biblical introduction not so much in the spirit of a free search after truth as in an apologetical and polemical style. This course, however, has not enriched Biblical science. To this class of books belong a number of monographs, or treatises on separate subjects; also the Handb. der Historisch-kritischen Einleitung in das Alte Testament of H. A. C. Havernick (Erlangen, 1837- 49, 2 pts. in 3 vols.; 2nd ed. 1854-6, by Keil, who also edited pt. 1 of the first ed.), of which the General Introduction and the Introduction to the Pentateuch have been translated into English (Edinb. 1850, 1852); also H. E. E. Guericke’s Einleitunz in das Neue Testament (Halle, 1828), in which too frequently an anathema against heretics serves as a substitute for demonstration. The apologetical tendency prevails in the work of G. Hamilton, entitled A General Introduction to the Study of the Hebrew Scriptures, etc. (Dublin, 1814); in Thomas Hartwell Horne’s Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, etc. (Lond. 1818, 4 vols.; the 10th ed. of this work was an entirely new production, and the best hitherto produced in English, in 4 vols. 8vo, 1856, vol. 2 on the. O.T. by Dr. S. Davidson [since displaced by one by Mr. Ayre], and vol. 4 on the N.T. by Dr. S. P. Tregelles); and in J. Cook’s Inquiry into the Books of the New Testament (Edinburgh, 1824).
The Roman Catholics also have, in modern times, written on Biblical introduction, although the unchangeable decrees of the Council of Trent hinder all free, critical, and scientific treatment of the subject. The Roman Catholics can treat Biblical introduction only in a polemical and apologetical manner, and are obliged to keep up the attention of their readers by-introducing learned archaeological researches, which conceal the want of free movement. This latter mode was adopted by J. Jahn (who died at Vienna in 1816) in his Einleitung in die gottlichen Bcher des alten Bundes (Vienna, 1793, 2 vols., and 1802, 3 vols.), and in his Introductio in Libros Sacros Veteris Testamenti in epitonewi redacta (Viennae, 1805). This work has been republished by F. Ackermann, in what are asserted to be the third and fourth editions, under the title of Introductio in Libros Sacros Veteris Testamenti, usibus academicis accommodata (Viennae, 1825 and 1839). But these so-called new editions are full of alterations and mutilations, which remove every free expression of Jahn, who belonged to the liberal period of the emperor Joseph. J. L. Hug’s Einleitung in das Neue Testament (Stuttgart and Tbing. 1800, 2 vols.; 4th ed. 1847) surpasses Jahn’s work in ability, and has obtained much credit among Protestants by its learned explanations, although these frequently swerve from the point in question. Hug’s work has been translated into English by the Rev. D. G. Wait, LL.D.; but this translation is much surpassed by that of Fosdick, published in the United States, and enriched by the addenda of Moses Stuart. The polemical and apologetical style prevails in the work of J. G. Herbst, Ristorisch-kritische Einleitung. in die Schriften des Alten Testamentes (completed and edited after the death of the author by Welte, Carlsruhe, 1840); and in L’Introduction Historique et Critique aux Livres de l’Ancien et du Nouveau Testament, by J. B. Glaire (Paris, 1839, 4 vols.). The work of the excellent Feilmoser, who died in 1831, Einleitung in die Biicher des Neuen Bundes (2nd ed. Tbingen, 1830), forsakes the position of a true Roman Catholic, inasmuch as it is distinguished by a noble ingenuousness and candor. The same remark in a great measure applies to the still later work of Scholz, Einl. in l. heil. Schriften d. A. und N.T. (vol. 1 general introd. Cologne, 1845). Among the best Roman Catholic contributions to this branch of Biblical literature are the works of Reusch, Lehrb. der Einleitung in dos A.T. (Freib. 3rd ed. 1868), and Langen, Grundriss der Einleitung in das N.T. (Freib. 1868).
In Great Britain, besides the above works of Horne and Hamilton, we may especially name the following as introductory in their character. Collier’s Sacred Interpreter (1746, 2 vols. 8vo) was one of the earliest publications of this kind. It went through several editions, and was translated into German in 1750. It relates both to the Old and New Testament, and is described by bishop Marsh as a good popular preparation for the study of the holy Scriptures. Lardner’s History of the Apostles and Evangelists (1756-57, 3 vols. 8vo) is described by the same critic as an admirable introduction to the New Testament. It is a storehouse of literary information, collected with equal industry and fidelity. From this work, from the English translation of Michaelis’s Introduction (1761), and from Dr. Owen’s Observations on the Gospels (1764), Dr. Percy, bishop of Dromore, compiled a useful manual, called A Key to the New Testament, which has gone through many editions, and is much in request among the candidates for ordination in the Established Church. The Key to the Old Testament (1790), by Dr. Gray, afterwards bishop of Bristol, was written in imitation of Percy’s compilation; but it is a much more elaborate performance than the Key to the New Testament. It is a compilation from a great variety of works, references to which are given at the foot of each page. Bishop Marsh speaks of it as a very useful publication for students of divinity, who will find at one view what must otherwise be collected from many writers. It is now, however, almost entirely behind the times. Dr. Harwood’s Introduction to the Study and Knowledge of the New Testament (1767, 1771,2 vols. 8vo), although noteworthy in this connection, is not properly an introduction to the New Testament, in the usual and proper sense of the term. It does not describe the books of the New Testament, but is a collection of dissertations relative partly to the character of the sacred writers, Jewish history and customs, and to such parts of heathen antiquities as have reference to the New Testament. The first volume of bishop Tomline’s Elements of Christian Theology contains an introduction both to the Old and to the New Testament, and has been published in a separate form. It is suited to its purpose as a manual for students in divinity; but the standard of present attainment cannot be very high if, as Marsh states, it may be read with advantage by the most experienced divine.
The latest and most important works in this department are the following: Hengstenberg, Beitrdye zur Einleitung ins A. B. (Berlin, 1831); Hertwig, Tabellen z. Einleitung ins N.T. [a useful compilation] (Berl. 1849; 3rd ed. 1865); Maier (Roman Catholic), Einleitung in d. Schriften des N.T. (Freib. 1852); Keil, Lehrbuch der Historisch Kritischen Einleitung ins Alte Test. (Frankf. and Erlang. 1853 [a highly judicious work in most respects]; translated in Clarke’s Library, Edinb. 1870, 2 vols.); Davidson, Introd. to the O.T. [a different work from that contained in Home above, and strongly Rationalistic] (London. 1862-3,3 vols. 8vo); Davidson, Introd. to the N.T. [an excellent, though rather non-committal work] (Lond. 1848-50, 3 vols. 8vo; last edit. 1868 [more strongly inclining to Rationalism]); Scholten (decidedly Rationalistic), Hist. Krit. Einl. ins N.T. (Lpz. 1853, 1856); Bleek, Einleitung in d. A.T. (Berlin, 1860 [moderately Rationalistic]; translated into English, Lond. 1869, 2 vols. 8vo); Bleek, Einleit. in d. N.T. (Berl. 1862, 1865; translated into English, Edinburgh, 1870, 2 vols. 8vo); Weber, Kurzgef. Einl. in d. Schrifi. A. und N.T. (Nordl. 1867, 8vo). Less generally known are the following: Haneberg, Versuch e. Gesch. d. bibl. offebarung, als Einleitung ins A. und N.T. (Regensb. 1850); Prins, Handbook to de Kennis v. d. heil. Schriften ed. o.e. U. Verbonds (Rotterd. 1851-52, 2 vol,.); Bauer (G. L.), Entw. e. krit. Einl. in d. Schrift. d. A. T. (Nrnb. 1794, 1801, 1806); Ackermann, Introduct. in Libros Vet. Feed. (Vien. 1825); Schmidt, Hist. krit. Einleitung ins N.T. (Giessen, 1804, 2 vols.); Schneckenburger, Beitr. z. Enl. ins NM T. (Stuttg. 1832); Neudecker, Lehrbuch d. hist. krit. Einleit. in N.T. (Lpz. 1840); Roman Catholic: Reithmayr, Einl. 1. d. kanonisch. Bich. (Regensb. 1852). For other works, see Walch, Biblictheca Theolog. 3:31 sq.; 4:196 sq.; Danz, Universal Worterb. s.v. Bibel; Darling, Cyclopcedia Bibliographica, 1, 11 sq.; Herzog, Real-Encyklop. s.v. Einleitung; Lange’s Commentary (American ed.), 1, 62; compare British and For. Evang. Review, October, 1861; Deutsche Zeitsch.f. christl. Wissensch. April, 1861; Revue Chret. 1869, p. 745; Hauck, Theol. Jahresber. 1868, 4:759. SEE SCRIPTURES, HOLY.