Roof
ROOF
See HOUSE.
Fuente: American Tract Society Bible Dictionary
Roof
(, , Mat 8:8; , Act 10:9). The roofs of dwelling houses in the entire East, because of the generally dry weather, are made flat and are surrounded with a guard or railing (; , See Deu 22:8, where the parapet is insisted on, and comp. Thomson, Land and Book, 1, 48 sq.; 2Ki 1:2; comp. Mishna, Moed Katan, 1, 10; Michaelis, Mos. Rit. 4, 356). Anciently only buildings intended for display had raised roofs; such as temples (Cicero, Orat. 3, 26; Philo, 2, 43; Sueton. Claud. 17). So the Temple in Jerusalem, we are told by Jewish writers, was arched or vaulted, so that no one should repair thither for the same purposes as to the roofs of the houses (comp. also Jerome, Ad Suniamn et Fretel. p. 661). In the East the roof consists usually of a waterproof tiling (Mariti, Trav. p. 246 sq.; Tavernier, Voyage, 1, 168) or of stones (Vitruv. 2, 1, 5; Schweigger, Reis. p. 263), and is raised a little at one side or in the middle to shed water (Pliny, 36, 62; Burckhardt, Arab. p. 152). Pipes are also used to convey the water into cisterns (see Maimon. ad Middoth, 6, 6). A kind of weak, perishable grass commonly grew up between the tiles (Psa 129:6; 2Ki 19:26; Isa 37:27; see Shaw, Trav. p. 210). The roof of Dagon’s temple (Jdg 16:27) is said to have been crowded with 3000 persons to behold Samson’s feats; but this can hardly mean the top of the temple, because the persons thereon could not see what was passing within. It appears rather to have been a loft or gallery running around the top of the building inside, and supported by pillars with two main posts, in the middle of the temple. A very usual kind of roof is constructed in the following manner: The beams are placed about three feet apart; across these sticks are arranged close together, and thickly matted thorn bush; over this is spread a coat of thick mortar, and lastly the marl or earth, which covers the whole. A large stone roller is kept on the top of the house for the purpose of hardening and flattening the layer of earth, to prevent the rain from penetrating. Roofs, however, are often of a very inferior description to this. They are at times composed of the palm leaf, and in other cases are made of cornstalks or brushwood, spread over with gravel (Robinson, Biblical Res. 1, 243; 2, 279), or of reeds and heather with a layer of beaten earth (Hartley, Researches in Greece, p. 240). The roofs of the great halls in Egypt are covered with flagstones of enormous size. Parapets are uniformly placed around the roof, for the purpose of guarding against accident by falling (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt. 2, 122). The roof was much used by the Hebrews, as it still is in Eastern nations. It was often resorted to get fresh air, by convalescents and others (2Sa 11:2; Dan 4:26; comp. Buckingham, Mesop. p. 70; Thomson, Land and Book, 1, 49 sq. See Thilo, Cod. Apocryph. 1, 120, 297, where it is a playground for children). In summer the people slept there (1Sa 9:26; comp. Tavernier, 1, 168; Buckingham, Mesop. p. 336; Rosenmller, Morgenl. 3, 85; Morier, Second Journey, p. 230; Robinson, 3, 242).
It was sought as a place for quiet conversation (1Sa 9:25), for undisturbed lamentation (Isa 15:3; Jer 48:38), for building booths (q.v., Neh 8:16), and for various religious actions (2Ki 23:12; Jer 19:13; Zep 1:5; Act 10:9), perhaps with the feeling of being raised nearer to heaven and to God. Acts of a public nature were transacted there (2Sa 16:22), and announcements made (Mat 10:27; Luk 12:3; comp. Josephus, War, 2, 21. 5; Talm. Babyl. Shab. fol. 35, 2; comp. Lucian, Ver. Hist. 2, 46). Nor is this inconsistent with its use for secret interviews, before named, as these took place when neighbors were supposed to be occupied; yet the upper chamber (q.v.) was certainly more commonly sought for. Again, the roof was a lookout over the street (Jdg 16:27; Isa 22:1; comp. Shaw, Trav. p. 190), a place for exposing clothes and household stuff to the air (Jos 2:6; comp. Mishna, Toroth, 9, 6; Mikvaoth, 2, 7; Machshir, 6, 2; Maaser, 1, 6, 3; Megilla, 3, 3; Menach, 8, 4); a commanding position for defense against attacks from below (Jdg 9:51; 2 Maccabees 5, 12; comp. Josephus, Ant. 14, 15, 12; War, 4, 1, 4; Schweigger, Reis. p. 263). But a constant residence on the roof, in loneliness and exposure, is a forcible image of a sorrowful life (Pro 21:9; comp. 25:24). It was usual to have two flights of steps to ascend to the roof; one within the house and one in the street. It was easy, too, to climb over the railing of the roof and thus pass from that of one house to its neighbor; or from house to house along a whole street (Mat 24:17; Mar 13:15; Luk 17:31; comp. Flamin, Reisebesch. p. 10; Russel, Aleppo, 1, 45; Josephus, Ant. 13, 5, 3; Mishna, Baba Metsia, fol. 88, 1; Barhebr. Chronicles p. 170). Thus, too, it was easy to pass down from the roof into a house (see Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. p. 601). The passage Mar 2:4 is most naturally explained by supposing Jesus to have been in the chamber immediately under the roof. The people took up the floor of the roof (comp. Josephus, Ant. 14, 15, 12) and let down the sick man (Strauss, Leb. Jes. 2, 61, supposes the usual mode of access from the roof to the upper chamber to be used, which contradicts Mark). This is the meaning of Luke in the parallel passage, Luk 5:19.
If we understand the midst ( ) to mean the court of the house, then the tiling (), as our version has it, or rather bricks, must mean the guard wall around the roof (Faber, Archoeol. 1, 419), or the cornice (Host, Nachr. v. Maroe, p. 264). But it is doubtful whether the latter was common in Palestine; and the expression into the midst (comp. Luk 4:35; Mar 3:3; Mar 14:60; Joh 20:19) does not admit the above interpretation (Shaw, Trav. p. 186 sq., gives an explanation which does not suit the passage). A literal taking up of the roof, however, would be but a trifling matter, and would involve no injury to the building, if it were like the modern Arab houses in that vicinity. They are very low, and the roof is formed chiefly of twigs and earth, on beams some three feet apart. It is very common to remove part of this to let down goods, etc. (see Thomson, Land and Book, 2, 6 sq.); the Talm. Babl. Moed Katon, 25, 1, says, when R. Huna died, his bier could not pass the door, and it was thought best to let it down through the roof. See Mill, Diss. de Aedium Hebr. Tectis, in Oelrich’s Coll. Opusc. Hist. Phil. Theol. 1, 2, 573 sq.; Battus, Diss. de Tectis Hebr. Retectis (Viteb. 1696); Faber, Archoeol. 1, 417 sq.; Hackett, Illustr. of Script. p. 70, 71, 72, and on Pro 27:15, p. 85. SEE HOUSETOP.
Fuente: Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature
Roof (2)
in architecture, is the external covering on the top of a building; sometimes of stone, but usually of wood overlaid with slates, tiles, lead, etc. The form and construction of the timber work of roofs differ materially according to the nature of the building on which it is to be placed, and any attempt to notice all the varieties would far exceed the limits of this work. The main portions of the framing, which in most cases are placed at regular intervals, are each called a truss, principal, or pair of principals. These, in ornamental open roofs, are the leading features, and in some ancient roofs are contrived with an especial view to appearance. The accompanying diagrams of two of the simplest kinds of modern roofs will serve to explain the names of the most important timbers: a king-post roof has one vertical post in each truss, a queen-post roof has two.
Mediaeval roofs vary so much in their structure, on account of the ornamental disposition of the pieces, that it is not easy to establish a universal nomenclature for them. Many names of beams and timbers occur in old contracts of which the original application is often uncertain.
The Hammer-beam roofs contain most of the peculiarities of structure that distinguish the mediaeval roofs from the modern roofs, and the following nomenclature may be adopted in describing them: Sometimes one hammer- beam is repeated over another, forming, as it were, two stories. It is then called a double hammer-beam roof, and the nomenclature runs: lower hammer-beam, upper hammer-beam, lower hammer-brace, upper hammer-brace, lower side-post, upper side-post, etc.
It must be remembered that all upright pieces may be called posts, with an epithet, if necessary, e.g. Pendant-post. Inclined pieces, if not rafters, are braces, and commonly derive their epithet from the piece under which they are placed, or which they principally stiffen, as collar-brace. Ashlar pieces are fixed to every one of the rafters in most mediaeval roofs. but they are sometimes concealed by cornice moldings and frieze boards. The example from Dorchester shows the hammer-beam construction with collar-brace, side post, etc.
Of the construction of the wooden roofs of the Ancients very little is known, but it was probably of the most inartificial kind, and judging from the form of their pediments, the pitch of them was low. Some small buildings still retain their original roofs of marble, as the Tower of the Winds, and the Choragic Monument of Lisicrates at Athens. The Mausoleum of Theodoric at Ravenna has a domed roof, formed of a single block of stone, nearly thirty-six feet in diameter.
Saxon roofs were elevated, but to what degree we have no certain account; neither is there satisfactory evidence of their internal appearance. The illuminations in manuscripts seem to represent them as often covered with slates, tiles, or shingles.
Norman roofs were also raised, in some cases to a very steep pitch; but in others the elevation was more moderate, the ridge being formed at about a right angle. It does not appear that at this period the construction was made ornamental, although, doubtless, in many cases the framing was open to view. The covering was certainly sometimes of lead, but was probably oftener of a less costly material.
Early English roofs were generally, if not always, made with a steep slope, though not universally of the same pitch. Sometimes the section of the roof represented an equilateral triangle, and sometimes the proportions were flatter. A few roofs of this date still exist, as on the nave of Hales Owen Church, Shropshire: this originally had tie beams across it, and under every rafter additional pieces of timber are fixed, which are cut circular, so that the general appearance is that of a series of parallel ribs forming a barrel vault. This seems to have been a common mode of improving the appearance of roofs in this style before any important ornaments were applied to them. The additional pieces under the rafters were usually either quite plain or only chamfered on the edges. A molded rib sometimes ran along the top, and a cornice next the wall plate, both of which were generally small. The tie beams also were frequently molded.
When first the approach of the Decorated style began to exercise an influence, the roofs, though still of the same construction, became somewhat more ornamental. There are also roofs existing of this date, and some probably earlier, in country churches, the insides of which are formed into a series of flat spaces, or cants. They are usually quite plain, with the exception of the tie beam and cornice, which are frequently molded, and the king post, which is commonly octagonal, with a molded capital or base. Of a later period, roofs of this kind are extremely common in some districts, but they are generally to be distinguished from the earlier specimens by being arranged in seven cants instead of six. Of the older description good examples remain at Chartham Church, Kent, and on the south aisle of Merrow Church, Surrey. Most of these roofs are now ceiled, but probably many of them were originally open.
As the Decorated style advanced, the leading timbers of the principals were often formed into an arch by the addition of circular braces under the tie beams, the beams themselves being also frequently curved. The spandrels formed by these braces were very usually filled with pierced tracery, and the timbers generally were more molded and enriched than in the earlier styles. Where the lines of moldings were interrupted, they very commonly terminated in carved leaves or other ornaments. Sometimes, the tie beams were omitted in roofs of high pitch, but the principals were generally arched. The roofs of domestic halls, in the Decorated style, appear to have been more enriched than those of churches: that of Malvern Priory had a variety of cross braces above the tie beams cut into ornamental featherings; that of the archbishop of Canterbury’s palace at Mayfield, Sussex, was supported on stone arches spanning the whole breadth of the room (about forty feet). This kind of construction is also partially used in the hall at the Mote, Ightham, Kent. This kind of construction, a wooden roof supported on stone arches instead of the large timbers necessary for the principals, seems to have been more common than is generally supposed, and at all periods.
In the Perpendicular style hammer-beam roofs were introduced (one of the finest specimens of which is that on Westminster Hall), and, together with them, most numerous varieties of construction for the sake of ornament. These are far too manifold to be enument. These are far too manifold to be enumerated; many specimens exist in churches and halls, some of which are extremely magnificent, and are enriched with tracery, featherings, pendants, and carvings of various kinds, in the greatest profusion. Many roofs in this style were nearly or quite flat; these, when plain, had the timbers often exposed to view, and molded; in other cases they were ceiled with oak and formed into panels, and were usually enriched with bosses and other ornaments of similar description to those of the higher roofs; good examples remain at Cirencester Church, Gloucestershire. On halls hammer-beam roofs were principally used, but on churches other kinds of construction were more prevalent. There are some mediaeval buildings, principally vestries, apses, and portions of churches, which are entirely roofed with stone. They are generally of high elevation, and often have ribs answering to the rafters in a wooden roof. They occur at all periods, and in some cases may have been erected for protection against fire; in other cases, when the material was suitable, perhaps from economy.
The name of roof is often applied to what are, in fact. ceilings having an external coverings or outer roof, distinct from that which is seen. Vaulted roofs are also frequently spoken of, but a vault usually has an outer roof over it, and is more properly a vaulted ceilings See Parker, Gloss. of Architect. s.v.; Chambers’s Encyclop. s.v.; Walcott, Sac. Archoeol. s.v.
Fuente: Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature
Roof
ROOF.See House in vol. i. p. 753a.
Fuente: A Dictionary Of Christ And The Gospels
Roof
ROOF.See House, 5.
Fuente: Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible
Roof
roof. See HOUSE.
Fuente: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
Roof
Roof [HOUSE]
Fuente: Popular Cyclopedia Biblical Literature
Roof
See House, Architecture of, Roofs
House, Architecture of, Roofs
Fuente: Nave’s Topical Bible
Roof
Roof. See House.
Fuente: Smith’s Bible Dictionary
Roof
“a covering” (stego, “to cover”), denotes “a roof,” Mar 2:4; said of entering a house, Mat 8:8; Luk 7:6.