Samuel, Books of
Samuel, Books of
The LXX. translators regarded the books of Samuel and of Kings as forming one continuous history, which they divided into four books, which they called “Books of the Kingdom.” The Vulgate version followed this division, but styled them “Books of the Kings.” These books of Samuel they accordingly called the “First” and “Second” Books of Kings, and not, as in the modern Protestant versions, the “First” and “Second” Books of Samuel.
The authors of the books of Samuel were probably Samuel, Gad, and Nathan. Samuel penned the first twenty-four chapters of the first book. Gad, the companion of David (1 Sam. 22:5), continued the history thus commenced; and Nathan completed it, probably arranging the whole in the form in which we now have it (1 Chr. 29:29).
The contents of the books. The first book comprises a period of about a hundred years, and nearly coincides with the life of Samuel. It contains (1) the history of Eli (1-4); (2) the history of Samuel (5-12); (3) the history of Saul, and of David in exile (13-31). The second book, comprising a period of perhaps fifty years, contains a history of the reign of David (1) over Judah (1-4), and (2) over all Israel (5-24), mainly in its political aspects. The last four chapters of Second Samuel may be regarded as a sort of appendix recording various events, but not chronologically. These books do not contain complete histories. Frequent gaps are met with in the record, because their object is to present a history of the kingdom of God in its gradual development, and not of the events of the reigns of the successive rulers. It is noticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11:2-12: 29) containing an account of David’s sin in the matter of Bathsheba is omitted in the corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20.
Fuente: Easton’s Bible Dictionary
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF
The two books of Samuel were originally one. They are part of the collection that the Hebrews referred to as the Former Prophets, that is, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. (Concerning the significance of the name Former Prophets see PROPHECY.)
Authorship
Though the author of 1 and 2 Samuel is not named, it seems that he took much of his material from the records kept by such people as Samuel, Nathan, Gad, David and the writer of the book of Jasher (1Sa 10:25; 2Sa 1:18; 1Ch 27:24; 1Ch 29:29). The books of Samuel are named after the man who is the chief character at the beginning of the story and who anointed the two kings whose reigns occupy the remainder of the story. Together the two books cover about one hundred years, from the end of the period of the judges to the end of the reign of David.
Religious purpose
The books of Samuel show how Israels political life developed from the simple and often disorderly arrangement that existed in the time of the judges to an established hereditary monarchy. When Samuel succeeded Eli as judge over Israel, the nations life was following the same pattern as illustrated in the book of Judges, with the people turning away from God and falling under foreign domination (1Sa 3:11-13; 1Sa 4:10-11). When, in response to Samuels preaching, the people returned to God, God saved them (1Sa 7:3-6; 1Sa 7:13; 1Sa 7:15-17).
When Samuel became old and could no longer exercise full control over the nation, troubles returned. In a desire for stability, the people asked for a monarchy like that of other nations. But Israels problems came from the peoples sins, not from the system of government. Therefore, Samuel warned that although they would have their wish and be given a king, they would still be punished if they disobeyed God. As it had been under the judges, so it would be under the kings (1Sa 12:9-15).
Israels first king, Saul, was similar to the judges in that the special power of Gods Spirit came upon him in certain national crises (1Sa 11:6-11). But because of his rebellion against God, God took this power from him and gave it to David (1Sa 15:23; 1Sa 16:13-14). David was the last of the Spirit-gifted leaders and the first of the hereditary kings. The people had wanted a system of government where the rule would pass from father to son without any need for God to act supernaturally through selected men. Now they had it.
With David a new era began, and the rest of the story deals with his reign. It demonstrates the truth of Samuels earlier assertion that national stability would be achieved by devotion to God rather than by a change in the form of government.
Sauls reign was characterized by weakness and conflict, Davids by strength and prosperity. The difference was not because of the monarchy as an institution, but because of Davids submission to God and his desire to carry out Gods will (Psa 89:19-37; Act 13:22). The books of Samuel are not so much concerned with systems of government as with obedience to God. Their purpose is not just to record historical events, but to show how God was working in the lives of his people.
Contents of 1 Samuel
The first seven chapters of 1 Samuel are concerned with Israel during the period when Eli, and then Samuel, were judges. By means of a lengthy story, the writer points out the significance of the birth of Samuel (1:1-2:11) in view of the judgment that was about to fall on Eli and his family (2:12-3:21). Israel, because of its sin, suffered Gods judgment when the Philistines captured the ark (4:1-22), but the ark returned (5:1-7:1), Israel repented and the nation won a notable victory (7:2-17).
In their desire for greater national stability, the people of Israel asked for a king. Samuel told them that in acting like this they were rejecting God, but the people remained unmoved (8:1-22). God told Samuel to anoint Saul as king (9:1-10:16), and this private anointing was followed by Sauls public appointment to office (10:17-27). With a spectacular victory over the Ammonites, Saul soon became a popular hero (11:1-15), and Samuel retired from the national leadership (12:1-25). Saul had other notable victories, firstly over the Philistines (13:1-14:52), and then over the Amalekites (15:1-35), but in both cases his disobedience to God showed he was not fit to rule over Gods people.
David was the man God chose to succeed Saul as king (16:1-23). He won fame through his victory over Goliath (17:1-58), and after further outstanding victories he was rapidly promoted in the Israelite army. His successes, however, stirred up Sauls jealousy, resulting in various attempts by Saul to kill him (18:1-19:24). David was forced to flee from Saul to save his life (20:1-21:15). Soon he was joined by hundreds of others who were discontented because of the injustices of Sauls rule (22:1-23). Yet in spite of Sauls unjust pursuit of him, David refused to attack his king (23:1-25:44).
At one stage David looked for refuge in enemy Philistia (26:1-27:12), and even set out with the Philistines when they were going to fight with Israel. The Philistine leaders refused to accept him and sent him back (28:1-29:11). The result was that instead of fighting against Israel, David had a rewarding victory over some Amalekites who had been raiding in southern Israel (30:1-31). Meanwhile in the north the Philistines defeated Israel, and Saul was killed in battle (31:1-13).
Contents of 2 Samuel
David was made king in place of Saul, but some of Sauls followers refused to accept David. They made one of Sauls sons king, and fighting soon broke out between the two factions (1:1-3:1). After two years, Sauls faction was overthrown and David was the undisputed king (3:2-4:12).
In an effort to unite all Israel, David conquered Jerusalem (which had been under the control of non-Israelite people) and made it the new national capital (5:1-25). Determined to restore the true worship of God to its rightful place in the centre of the nations life, he brought the ark to Jerusalem (6:1-23). In response to Davids request to build God a permanent dwelling place, God promised David something more important, a lasting dynasty (7:1-29).
David won many battles (8:1-10:19), but he brought trouble upon himself through some foolish actions in which he was guilty of sexual immorality and murder (11:1-12:31). His own household was in turn torn apart by sexual immorality and murder (13:1-14:33), and his son Absalom overthrew him and seized the throne (15:1-16:23). War followed between Absalom and David, with the result that Absalom was killed (17:1-19:8). David then returned to Jerusalem to be re-established as king (19:9-43). Not long after, he had to deal with another revolt, but this time success came to him more swiftly (20:1-26).
The final four chapters form an appendix of miscellaneous matters. Various short stories indicate some of the difficult decisions that David at times faced (21:1-22). A lengthy psalm celebrates his victories over his enemies (22:1-51), and a shorter one speaks of the blessings that a God-fearing king brings to his people (23:1-7). After listing Davids mighty men (23:8-39), the appendix closes with the story of a disastrous census that David once carried out (24:1-25).
Fuente: Bridgeway Bible Dictionary
Samuel, Books Of
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF
1. Title.The two Books of Samuel are really parts of what was originally one book. This is shown not only by the fact that the narrative of Book I. is continued without the slightest interruption in Book II., and that the style, tone, point of view, and purpose are the same throughput, but also by their appearance as one book bearing the simple title Samuel in the oldest known Hebrew MSS. The division of the Hebrew text into two books was first made in print by Daniel Bomberg in his Hebrew Bible (2nd ed. 1517). In doing so he was in part following the text of the Septuagint and the Vulgate, in which the Books of Samuel and Kings are described as the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Books of Kingdoms (LXX [Note: Septuagint.] ), or Kings (Vulgate). The title Samuel, less accurately descriptive of the contents than that of Kingdoms or Kings, owes its origin to the prominent place held by Samuel in 1Sa 1:1-28; 1Sa 2:1-36; 1Sa 3:1-21; 1Sa 4:1-22; 1Sa 5:1-12; 1Sa 6:1-21; 1Sa 7:1-17; 1Sa 8:1-22; 1Sa 9:1-27; 1Sa 10:1-27; 1Sa 11:1-15; 1Sa 12:1-25; 1Sa 13:1-23; 1Sa 14:1-52; 1Sa 15:1-35; 1Sa 16:1-23. A late Jewish interpretation regarded it as declaring Samuels authorship of the narrative; but this is impossible, in view of the fact that the history extends through the reign of David, long after the death of Samuel (1Sa 25:1).
2. Contents.The period covered by the Books of Samuel extends from the birth of Samuel to the close of Davids reign, i.e. approximately from b.c. 1070 to b.c. 970. The narrative falls into three main divisions:I.: Samuel and Saul, 1Sa 1:1-28; 1Sa 2:1-36; 1Sa 3:1-21; 1Sa 4:1-22; 1Sa 5:1-12; 1Sa 6:1-21; 1Sa 7:1-17; 1Sa 8:1-22; 1Sa 9:1-27; 1Sa 10:1-27; 1Sa 11:1-15; 1Sa 12:1-25; 1Sa 13:1-23; 1Sa 14:1-52; 1Sa 15:1-35; II.: The Rise of David, 1Sa 16:1-23 -2Sa 5:3; III.: David as king of United Israel, 2Sa 5:4-24. Division I. is made up of three sections: (1) The childhood and youth of Samuel, to the downfall of Elis house and the captivity of the Ark (1Sa 1:1 to 1Sa 7:1); (2) Samuels career as Judge, including his defeat of the Philistines, his anointing of Saul, and his farewell address (1Sa 7:2-12); (3) Sauls reign till his rejection (1Sa 13:1-23; 1Sa 14:1-52; 1Sa 15:1-35). Division II. likewise includes three sections: (1) David at Sauls Court (1Sa 16:1 to 1Sa 21:1); (2) David as a fugitive outlaw (1Sa 21:2 -2Sa 1:1-27); (3) David as king in Hebron (2Sa 2:1 to 2Sa 5:3). Division III. forms three more sections: (1) establishment of Jerusalem as the religious and national capital, and a brief summary of Davids reign (2Sa 5:4-8); (2) supplementary narratives, setting forth particularly Davids great sin and subsequent troubles (2Sa 9:1-13; 2Sa 10:1-19; 2Sa 11:1-27; 2Sa 12:1-31; 2Sa 13:1-39; 2Sa 14:1-33; 2Sa 15:1-37; 2Sa 16:1-23; 2Sa 17:1-29; 2Sa 18:1-33; 2Sa 19:1-43; 2Sa 20:1-26); (3) a series of appendixes (2Sa 21:1-22; 2Sa 22:1-51; 2Sa 23:1-39; 2Sa 24:1-25). 1Ki 1:1 to 1Ki 2:11 really belongs to 2Sam., since it relates the circumstances attending the death of David, and thus brings the narrative to its natural close.
3. Text and Versions.The text of Samuel is the worst in the OT; only Ezekiel and Hosea can approach it in this respect. Many passages are unintelligible on the basis of the Massoretic text. The large amount of corruption may be due in part to the relatively great antiquity of the text, much of the narrative being among the oldest writings in the Hebrew Bible; and, in part, to the fact that these books were not used in the ordinary synagogue services, and so were not so carefully transmitted as they otherwise would have been. Unfortunately, the oldest existing Hebrew manuscript of Samuel dates its origin no farther back than the tenth century of our era. With each copying and recopying during the many preceding centuries fresh opportunity for error was afforded; and the wonder is not that there are so many errors, but that there are not more. In any effort to recover the original text large use must be made of the Septuagint, which is based upon a Hebrew text at least as old as the 3rd cent. b.c., and has preserved the original reading in many cases, while showing traces of it in others. The Syriac and Vulgate versions are also useful, but to a far less extent.
4. Sources and Date.The Books of Samuel, like almost every other OT writing, are a compilation from various sources, rather than the result of a careful study of earlier sources presented in the form of a unified, logical, and philosophical statement of facts and conclusions. We are here given the sources themselves, and are in large part left to draw our own conclusions. The composite character of the books is evidenced (1) by the existence of differing literary styles within them; (2) by the presence of varying and conflicting theological standpoints; (3) by the fact that they exhibit radically different attitudes towards the founding of the monarchy (cf. e.g. 1Sa 8:1-22; 1Sa 9:1-10; 1Sa 9:16); and (4) by the appearance of two or more narratives of one and the same event. In illustration of this last point we may cite (a) the three accounts of Sauls choice as king given in 1Sa 9:1-27; 1Sa 10:1-27; 1Sa 11:1-15; (b) the two accounts of Davids introduction to Saul in 1Sa 16:17 ff; 1Sa 17:55 ff.; (c) the twofold announcement of the fate of Elis house in 1Sa 2:27-36; 1Sa 3:11 ff.; (d) the double rejection of Saul in 1Sa 13:7-15; 1Sa 15:1-35; (e) the two accounts of Davids flight to Achish in 1Sa 21:10 ff; 1Sa 27:1 ff.; (f) the two narratives of David sparing Sauls life in 1Sa 23:19 ff; 1Sa 26:1 ff.one of the most marked examples of a doublet; (g) the differing descriptions of the death of Saul given in 1Sa 31:1-13 and 2Sa 1:1-27; (h) the varying traditions of Absaloms family found in 2Sa 14:25 ff; 2Sa 18:18; (i) the inconsistency of 1Sa 7:13 f. with 1314; and (j) the story that Goliath was slain by David in 1Sa 17:1-58, but by Elhanan in 2Sa 21:19. Phenomena of this kind are much more easily accounted for on the supposition that we are dealing here with the works of different hands, than on the hypothesis of a single author upon whom alone all the responsibility for the contents of the books must be placed.
This fact of composite origin is granted by all students of the Books of Samuel. In the attempt, however, to resolve the narrative into its original elements, two different schools of analysts have been formed. To the one belong such scholars as Budde, Cornill, H. P. Smith, Driver, Nowack, Stenning, and Kent; to the other, Wellhausen, Kuenen, Lhr, Kittel, Stade, and Kennedy. Budde and his followers find two main sources running through the books and covering practically the same ground, though from differing points of view. These sources, which Budde himself assigns to the same school of prophetic writers that produced the J [Note: Jahwist.] and E [Note: Elohist.] narratives of the Hexateuch, are supposed to have originated from the 9th to the 8th cents. b.c.; the J [Note: Jahwist.] source being the older of the two. These two sources were then supplemented and united by editors somewhere in the early part of the 7th cent. b.c.; and finally the books were given their present form by a Deuteronomic editor who revised the existing materials and added materials of his own some time in the Exile. Buddes distribution of the materials among the sources is as follows [figures within parentheses in J [Note: Jahwist.] indicate later elements; in E [Note: Elohist.] they designate the older portions of the document]:
J [Note: Jahwist.] = 1Sa 9:1 to 1Sa 10:7, (1Sa 10:8), 1Sa 10:9-16 a, 1Sa 13:2-7 a, (1Sa 13:7-15 a.) 1Sa 13:15-18, (1Sa 13:18-21) 1Sa 13:22, 1Sa 14:1-46, 1Sa 14:52, 1Sa 16:14-23, 1Sa 18:5-11, 1Sa 18:20-30, 1Sa 19:1; 1Sa 19:4-18 a, 1Sa 20:1-3; 1Sa 20:18-39, 1Sa 22:1-4; 1Sa 22:6-10 a, 1Sa 22:11-18, 1Sa 22:20 to 1Sa 23:14 a, 1Sa 23:19 a, 1Sa 23:20 to 1Sa 24:20, 1Sa 25:2 ff., 1Sa 27:1 to 1Sa 28:15, 1Sa 28:19 to 1Sa 31:13; 2Sa 1:1-4; 2Sa 1:11-12; 2Sa 1:17-23; 2Sa 2:1 to 2Sa 6:23; 2Sa 8:8-14 a, 2Sa 8:16-18, 2Sa 9:1 to 2Sa 21:22, 2Sa 23:7 bff., 2Sa 24:1-22.
E [Note: Elohist.] = 1Sa 1:1-5; 1Sa 1:7-28; 1Sa 2:11-26; 1Sa 3:1-10; 1Sa 3:15-21, (1Sa 4:1-18; 1Sa 5:1 to 1Sa 7:1), 1Sa 7:2 to 1Sa 8:22 a, 1Sa 12:1-25; 1Sa 15:1, (1Sa 15:2-23), 1Sa 15:24-31, (1Sa 15:32 f.), 1Sa 15:34 f.; (2Sa 1:6-10; 2Sa 1:13-16), 2Sa 7:1-29.
Pre-exilic Editors = 1Sa 1:6; 1Sa 2:22 b, 1Sa 4:15; 1Sa 4:22; 1Sa 6:11; 1Sa 6:15; 1Sa 6:17-19; 1Sa 8:22; 1Sa 9:2; 1Sa 9:9; 1Sa 10:9; 1Sa 10:16; 1Sa 10:26-27; 1Sa 11:7-8; 1Sa 11:12-14; 1Sa 13:19-22; 1Sa 16:1-13; 1Sa 17:12 f., 1Sa 18:21; 1Sa 19:2 f., 1Sa 19:7 a, 1Sa 19:18-24; 1Sa 20:4-17; 1Sa 20:40-42; 1Sa 21:11-15; 1Sa 22:4; 1Sa 22:10 b, 1Sa 23:19; 1Sa 24:21-22; 1Sa 25:1; 1Sa 28:3; 1Sa 28:16-18; 1Sa 30:5; 1Sa 30:18 b; 2Sa 1:5; 2Sa 2:23; 2Sa 3:6; 2Sa 3:30; 2Sa 8:6; 2Sa 8:11-12; 2Sa 11:21; 2Sa 13:18; 2Sa 13:38; 2Sa 14:25-27; 2Sa 20:23-26; 2Sa 21:2-3; 2Sa 21:7; 2Sa 23:14; 2Sa 23:23 a.
Exilic Editor = Exilic Editor = 1Sa 2:27-36; 1Sa 3:11-14; 1Sa 13:1; 1Sa 14:47-51; 2Sa 2:10-11; 2Sa 5:4 f., 2Sa 7:13; 2Sa 18:1-6; 2Sa 18:14; 2Sa 18:16; 2Sa 12:7-8; 2Sa 12:10-12; 2Sa 24:1 a.
Of uncertain Orioin = 1Sa 2:1-10; 2Sa 22:1 ff; 2Sa 23:1 ff.
This, which we may call the two-source theory because of the predominant place of the two main sources, is in its general features the prevailing view at the present time. In the assignment of certain passages, however, there is considerable variety of opinion, and in the identification of the two main sources with J [Note: Jahwist.] and E [Note: Elohist.] , Budde and Cornill are not followed by several adherents of the two-source view.
The analysis presented by the opposing school (Well-hausen, Stade, Kennedy, et al.) differs from the foregoing chiefly (a) in denying the unity of the two sources, J [Note: Jahwist.] and E [Note: Elohist.] respectively; (b) in refusing to recognize any relationship of these sources to J [Note: Jahwist.] and E [Note: Elohist.] ; and (c) in proposing another chronological assignment of the sources. Kennedy, e.g., the latest representative of this school, resolves Buddes J [Note: Jahwist.] into three main elements, and dates these three documents from the middle of the 10th cent. b.c. Buddes E [Note: Elohist.] likewise falls into three fragments under Kennedys examination; one of these is a life of Samuel dating from about b.c. 630; another and larger portion is from a Deuteronomic writer; and a small remainder consists of pre-exillc duplicates of some narratives appearing in Buddes J [Note: Jahwist.] .
The precise delimitation of the various sources and the exact way in which the Books of Samuel assumed their present form must remain for the future to determine. The unmistakable fact is that these books in their present form are due to the labours of late exilic editors who wrought them out of existing documents, some of which show Deuteronomic colouring, while others come from early pre-exilic times, somewhere about b.c. 900. As compared with the Books of Kings and Chronicles, or even the Book of Judges, Samuel shows far less evidence of editorial additions and modifications. The various sources are for the most part allowed to tell their stories in their own way. There is a total absence of any such theological strait-jacket as is found in the editorial framework of the Books of Kings. We thus have in the Books of Samuel some of the finest examples of the historical writings of the Hebrews in the various stages of their development.
5. Historical value.In estimating the historical value of the Books of Samuel, care must be taken to discriminate sharply between the books themselves and the sources which constitute them. The books themselves are the product of a long literary history, the work of various men living in widely scattered periods. They thus form a source-book, rather than a history in the modern sense. It is for this reason that they are so extremely valuable to the modern historian of Israel. For a correct picture of the times of Samuel, Saul, and David, it goes without saying that the oldest sources are the most trustworthy. Failure to paint original scenes and characters with a proper perspective increases in direct proportion to the distance of the narrator from the things he describes. Hence the later elements in these books are primarily of value not as sources of information concerning the times of the early monarchy, but as reflecting the point of view and the background of their writers. The older sources, however, coming from a period within a century or two of the events they narrate, furnish us with accurate information and are among the best historical records in the OT. They are especially rich in biographical materials. They help us to see Saul and David and their contemporaries as they really were. They give us glimpses of Samuel as the local seer, known only within the narrow limits of his own immediate district; of David as the fugitive, the freebooter, the outlaw, the idol of his men, the devoted servant of Jehovah, and yet capable of the most dastardly deeds; of Saul as the brave warrior, the patriot, the religious enthusiast, the moody chieftain of his clan. These men, with Joab, Absalom, and others, live and move before our eyes.
A still further service of the Books of Samuel is in the light they throw upon the development of religious practices and ideas in Israel. Kennedy rightly says: The study of this book has contributed more than anything else to the more accurate views of the historical development of religious thought in OT times, which are characteristic of the present day. The books represent from first to last a period of about five hundred years, during which time the religion of Israel was advancing by leaps and bounds under the leadership of the prophets. They contain, therefore, the record of this progress. Instances of this may be seen in the wide difference between the attitude towards foreign gods ascribed to David in 1Sa 26:19 (an early source), and that appearing in 1Sa 12:21 (a late source); in the primitive conception of revelation presented in the story of Samuels call (1Sa 3:1 ff.); in the narratives dealing with the origin of prophecy (1Sa 9:7 ff.), and the sons of the prophets (e.g. 1Sa 10:5 ff.); in the use of the teraphim (1Sa 19:13 ff.) and the ephod (1Sa 23:6-12); and in the advanced conception of God appearing in such passages as 2Sa 7:22. The Books of Samuel are thus invaluable to the historian of Israels religious, social, and political life.
6. Purpose.But the purpose of these books is not to serve as a bare, cold record of events and their causes; such matters are of only secondary importance; they are but means to an end. Their great purpose is to teach religion; they give sermons, not annals; they are prophecy, not history. In the Hebrew canon they occupy a place alongside of the prophetic books, and the entire division to which they belong is entitled the Prophets. Just as Amos and Isaiah deal with the facts of the present, interpreting them as expressions of Jehovahs will and using them to drive home moral and spiritual truth to the hearts and consciences of their hearers, so these writers have dealt with the facts of the past. What they have given us, then, is history seen through the eyes of prophets. The horizon of the prophets, however, was filled with religion; they themselves were nothing if not religious; their whole being throbbed with the energy of religion. Consequently it is not surprising that everything in the narratives is presented from the point of view of religion, and in such a way as to count most for the furtherance of religious ideals. This is not saying that these writers consciously and deliberately changed the course of events, or shifted the emphasis from one point to another in order to accomplish their purpose; but rather that they wrote things as they themselves conceived of them, and that, being prophets, they could conceive of Israels history in no other way than as through and through religious, as the embodiment of Jehovahs revelation of Himself and His will to His people. This is the prophets philosophy of history, and as such must commend itself to the mind and conscience of the Christian Church.
J. M. P. Smith.
Fuente: Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible
Samuel, Books of
I.PLACE OF THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL IN THE HEBREW CANON
II.CONTENTS OF THE BOOKS AND PERIOD OF TIME COVERED BY THE HISTORY
III.SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS
1.Life of Samuel (1 Samuel 1 through 15)
2.Reign and Death of Saul (1 Samuel 16 through 2 Samuel 1)
3.Reign of David (2 Samuel 2 through 20)
4. Appendix (2 Samuel 21 through 24)
IV.SOURCES OF THE HISTORY
Two Main and Independent Sources
V.CHARACTER AND DATE OF THE SOURCES
VI.GREEK VERSIONS OF THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL
VII. ETHICAL AND RELIGIOUS TEACHING
LITERATURE
I. Place of the Books of Samuel in the Hebrew Canon.
In the Hebrew Canon and enumeration of the sacred books of the Old Testament, the two Books of Samuel were reckoned as one, and formed the third division of the Earlier Prophets ( , nebh’m r’shonm). The one book bore the title Samuel (, shemu’el), not because Samuel was believed to be the author, but because his life and acts formed the main theme of the book, or at least of its earlier part. Nor was the Book of Samuel separated by any real division in subject-matter or continuity of style from the Book of Kings, which in the original formed a single book, not two as in the English and other modern versions. The history was carried forward without interruption; and the record of the life of David, begun in Samuel, was completed in Kings. This continuity in the narrative of Israelite history was made more prominent in the Septuagint, where the four books were comprised under one title and were known as the four Books of the Kingdoms ( , bbloi basileion). This name was probably due to the translators or scholars of Alexandria. The division into four books, but not the Greek title, was then adopted in the Latin translation, where, however, the influence of Jerome secured the restoration of the Hebrew names, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings (Regum). Jerome’s example was universally followed, and the fourfold division with the Hebrew titles found a place in all subsequent versions of the Old Testament Scriptures. Ultimately, the distinction of Samuel and Kings each into two books was received also into printed editions of the Hebrew Bible. This was done for the first time in the editio princeps of the Rabbinic Bible, printed at Venice in 1516-17 AD.
II. Contents of the Books and Period of Time Covered by the History.
The narrative of the two Books of Samuel covers a period of about a hundred years, from the close of the unsettled era of the Judges to the establishment and consolidation of the kingdom under David. It is therefore a record of the changes, national and constitutional, which accompanied this growth and development of the national life, at the close of which the Israelites found themselves a united people under the rule of a king to whom all owed allegiance, controlled and guided by more or less definitely established institutions and laws. This may be described as the general purpose and main theme of the books, to trace the advance of the people under divine guidance to a state of settled prosperity and union in the promised land, and to give prominence to theocratic rule which was the essential condition of Israel’s life as the people of God under all the changing forms of early government. The narrative therefore centers itself around the lives of the three men, Samuel, Saul and David, who were chiefly instrumental in the establishment of the monarchy, and to whom it was due more than to any others that Israel emerged from the depressed and disunited state in which the tribes had remained during the period of the rule of the Judges, and came into possession of a combined and effective national life. If the formal separation therefore into two books be disregarded, the history of Israel as it is narrated in Samuel is most naturally divided into three parts, which are followed by an appendix recording words and incidents which for some reason had not found a place in the general narrative:
A.The life and rule of Samuel (1 Sam 1 through 15) (death 1Sa 25:1).
B.The life, reign and death of Saul (1 Sam 16 through 2 Sam 1).
C.The reign and acts of David to the suppression of the two rebellions of Absalom and Sheba (2 Sam 2 through 20).
D.Appendix; other incidents in the reign of David, the names of his chief warriors and his Song or Psalm of Praise (2 Sam 21-24).
III. Summary and Analysis.
To present a brief and clear analysis of these Books of Samuel is not altogether easy. For as in the Pentateuch and the earlier historical Books of Joshua and Judges, repetitions and apparently duplicate accounts of the same event are found, which interfere with the chronological development of the narrative. Even the main divisions, as stated above, to a certain extent overlap.
1. Life of Samuel (1 Samuel 1 Through 15):
(1) Visit of Hannah to Shiloh, and promise of the birth of a son (1 Sam 1:1-19); birth and weaning of Samuel, and presentation to Eli at Shiloh (1Sa 1:19-28).
(2) Hannah’s song or prayer (1Sa 2:1-10); ministry of Samuel to Eli the priest (1Sa 2:11, 1Sa 2:18-21, 1Sa 2:26); the evil practices of the sons of Eli and warning to Eli of the consequences to his house (1Sa 2:12-17, 1Sa 2:22-25, 1Sa 2:27-36).
(3) Samuel’s vision at the sanctuary and his induction to the prophetic office (1 Sam 3:1 through 4:1).
(4) Defeat of the Israelites by the Philistines, capture of the ark of God, death of the two sons of Eli and of Eli himself (1 Sam 4).
(5) Discomfiture of Dagon before the ark of God at Ashdod; return of the ark to Beth-shemesh, with expiatory offerings of golden tumors and golden mice; its twenty years’ sojourn at Kiriath-jearim (1 Sam 5:1 through 7:4).
(6) Assembly of Israel under Samuel at Mizpah, and victory over the Philistines (1Sa 7:5-14); Samuel established as judge over all Israel (1Sa 7:15-17).
(7) Samuel’s sons appointed to be judges and the consequent demand of the people for a king; Samuel’s warning concerning the character of the king for whom they asked (1 Sam 8).
(8) Saul’s search for, the lost asses of his father and meeting with Samuel (1 Sam 9).
(9) Saul is anointed by Samuel to be ruler over the people of Israel, and receives the gift of prophecy (1 Sam 10:1-16); second assembly of the people under Samuel at Mizpah, and election of Saul to be king (1Sa 10:17-27).
(10) Victory of Saul over the Ammonites and deliverance of Jabesh-gilead (1Sa 11:1-13); Saul made king in Gilgal (1Sa 11:14, 1Sa 11:15).
(11) Samuel’s address to the people in Gilgal, defending his own life and action, and exhorting them to fear and serve the Lord (1 Sam 12).
(12) Saul at Gilgal offers the burnt offering in Samuel’s absence; gathering of the Philistines to battie at Michmash; the Israelites’ lack of weapons of iron (1 Sam 13).
(13) Jonathan’s surprise of the Philistine army, and their sudden panic (1 Sam 14:1-23); Saul’s vow, unwittingly broken by Jonathan, whom the people deliver from the fatal consequences (1 Sam 14:24-45); victories of Saul over his enemies on every side (1Sa 14:46-52).
(14) War against Amalek, and Saul’s disobedience to the divine command to exterminate the Amaleldtes (1 Sam 15).
2. Reign and Death of Saul (1 Samuel 16 Through 2 Samuel 1):
(1) Anointing of David as Saul’s successor (1Sa 16:1-13); his summons to the court of Saul to act as minstrel before the king (1Sa 16:14-23).
(2) David and Goliath (1 Sam 17).
(3) The love of David and Jonathan (1Sa 18:1-4); the former’s advancement and fame, the jealousy of Saul, and his attempt to kill David (1Sa 18:5-16, 1Sa 18:29, 1Sa 18:30); David’s marriage to the daughter of Saul (1Sa 18:17-28).
(4) Saul’s renewed jealousy of David and second attempt to kill him (1 Sam 19:1-17); David’s escape to Ramah, whither the king followed (1Sa 19:18-24).
(5) Jonathan’s warning to David of his father’s resolve and their parting (1 Sam 20).
(6) David at Nob (1Sa 21:1-9); and with Achish of Gath (1Sa 21:10-15).
(7) David’s band of outlaws at Adullam (1Sa 22:1, 1Sa 22:2); his provision for the safety of his father and mother in Moab (1Sa 22:3-5); vengeance of Saul on those who had helped David (1 Sam 22:6-23).
(8) Repeated attempts of Saul to take David (1 Sam 23; 24).
(9) Death of Samuel (1Sa 25:1); Abigail becomes David’s wife, after the death of her husband Nabal (1 Sam 25:2-44).
(10) Saul’s further pursuit of David (1 Sam 26).
(11) David’s sojourn with Achish of Gath (1 Sam 27:1 through 28:2, 29); Saul and the witch of Endor (1 Sam 28:3-25).
(12) David’s pursuit of the Amalekites who had raided Ziklag, and victory (1 Sam 30).
(13) Battle between the Philistines and Israel in Mt. Gilboa and death of Saul (1Sa 31:1-13).
(14) News of Saul’s death brought to David at Ziklag (2 Sam 1:1-16); David’s lamentation over Saul and Jonathan (2Sa 1:17-27).
3. Reign of David (2 Samuel 2 Through 20):
(1) David’s Seven and a Half Years’ Reign over Judah in Hebron (2 Samuel 2:1 through 5:3).
(a) Consecration of David as king in Hebron (2Sa 2:1-4); message to the men of Jabesh-gilead (2Sa 2:4-7); Ish-bosheth made king over Northern Israel (2Sa 2:8-11); defeat of Abner and death of Asahel (2 Sam 2:12-32).
(b) Increase of the fame and prosperity of David, and the names of his sons (2Sa 3:1-5); Abner’s submission to David, and treacherous murder of the former by Joab (2 Sam 3:6-39).
(c) Murder of Ish-bosheth and David’s vengeance upon his murderers (2Sa 4:1-3, 2Sa 4:5-12); notice of the escape of Mephibosheth, when Saul and Jonathan were slain at Jezreel (2Sa 4:4).
(d) David accepted as king over all Israel (2Sa 5:1-3).
(2) Reign of David in Jerusalem over United Israel (2 Samuel 5:4 through 20:26).
(a) Taking of Jerusalem and victories over the Philistines (2 Sam 5:4-25).
(b) Return of the ark to the city of David (2 Sam 6).
(c) David’s purpose to build a temple for the Lord (2Sa 7:1-3); the divine answer by the prophet Nathan, and the king’s prayer (2 Sam 7:4-29).
(d) Victories over the Philistines, Syrians, and other peoples (2 Sam 8).
(e) David’s reception of Mephibosheth (2Sa 9:1-13).
(f) Defeat of the Ammonites and Syrians by the men of Israel under the command of Joab (2 Sam 10:1 through 11:1).
(g) David and Uriah, the latter’s death in battle, and David’s marriage with Bath-sheba (2 Sam 11:2-27).
(h) Nathan’s parable and David’s conviction of sin (2Sa 12:1-15); the king’s grief and intercession for his sick son (2Sa 12:15-25); siege and capture of Rabbah, the Ammonite capital (2Sa 12:26-31).
(i) Amnon and Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-22); Absalom’s revenge and murder of Amnon (2Sa 13:23-36); flight of Absalom (2Sa 13:37-39).
(j) Return of Absalom to Jerusalem (2 Sam 14:1-24); his beauty, and reconciliation with the king (2Sa 14:25-33).
(k) Absalom’s method of ingratiating himself with the people (2Sa 15:1-6); his revolt and the flight of the king from Jerusalem (2 Sam 15:7-31); meeting with Hushai (2Sa 15:32-37); Absalom in Jerusalem (2Sa 15:37).
(l) David’s’ meeting with Ziba (2Sa 16:1-4), and Shimei (2Sa 16:5-14); counsel of Ahitophel and Hushai (2 Sam 16:15 through 17:14); the news carried to David (2Sa 17:15-22); death of Ahitophel (2Sa 17:23).
(m) David at Mahanaim (2Sa 17:24-29).
(n) The revolt subdued, death of Absalom, and reception by David of the tidings (2 Sam 18:1 through 19:8a).
(o) Return of the king to Jerusalem, and meetings with Shimei, Mephibosheth, and Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sam 19:8b-43).
(p) Revolt of Sheba the Benjamite, and its suppression by Joab with the death of Amasa (2Sa 20:1, 2Sa 20:2, 4-22); the king’s treatment of the concubines left at Jerusalem (2Sa 20:3); the names of his officers (2Sa 20:23-26).
4. Appendix (2 Samuel 21 Through 24):
(1) Seven male descendants of Saul put to death at the instance of the Gibeonites (2Sa 21:1-14); incidents of wars with the Philistines (2Sa 21:15-22).
(2) David’s song of thanksgiving and praise (2 Sam 22).
(3) The last words of David (2Sa 23:1-7); names and exploits of David’s mighty men (2 Sam 23:8-39).
(4) The king’s numbering of the people, the resulting plague, and the dedication of the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sam 24).
IV. Sources of the History.
The natural inference from the character and contents of the Books of Samuel, as thus reviewed, is that the writer has made use of authorities, sources or documents, from which he has compiled a narrative of the events which it was his desire to place on record. The same characteristics are noticeable here which are found in parts of the Pentateuch and of the Books of Joshua and Judges, that in some instances duplicate or parallel accounts are given of one and the same event, which seems to be regarded from different points of view and is narrated in a style which is more or less divergent from that of the companion record. Examples of this so-called duplication are more frequent in the earlier parts of the books than in the later. There are presented, for instance, two accounts of Saul’s election as king, and an act of disobedience is twice followed, apparently quite independently, by the sentence of rejection. Independent also and hardly consistent narratives are given of David’s introduction to Saul (1Sa 16:14-23; 1Sa 17:31 ff, 55 ff); and the two accounts of the manner of the king’s death can be imperfectly reconciled only on the hypothesis that the young Amalekite told a false tale to David in order to magnify his own part in the matter. In these and other instances little or no attempt seems to be made to harmonize conflicting accounts, or to reconcile apparent discrepancies. In good faith the writer set down the records as he found them, making extracts or quotations from his authorities on the several events as they occurred, and thus building up his own history on the basis of the freest possible use of the materials and language of those who had preceded him.
However alien such a method of composition may appear to modern thought and usage in the West, it is characteristic of all early oriental writing. It would be almost impossible to find in any eastern literature a work of any length or importance which was not thus silently indebted to its predecessors, had incorporated their utterances, and had itself in turn suffered interpolation at the hands of later editors and transcribers. Accordingly, early Hebrew historical literature also, while unique in its spirit, conformed in its methods to the practice of the age and country in which it was composed. It would have been strange if it had been otherwise.
Two Main and Independent Sources:
Apart from the appendix and minor additions, of which Hannah’s song or psalm in 1 Samuel 2 is one, the main portion of the book is derived from two independent sources, which themselves in all probability formed part of a larger whole, a more or less consecutive history or histories of Israel. These sources may, however, have been, as others think, rather of a biographical nature, presenting and enforcing the teaching of the acts and experience of the great leaders and rulers of the nation. The parallelism and duplication of the narrative is perhaps most evident in the history of Saul. The broad lines of distinction between the two may be defined without much difficulty or uncertainty. The greater part of the first eight chapters of 1 Samuel is in all probability derived from the later of these two sources, to which is to be assigned more or less completely 1 Samuel 10 through 12:15; 17 through 19; 21 through 25; 28 and 2 Sam 1 through 7. The earlier source has contributed 1 Sam 9 with parts of 1 Samuel 10; 1Sa 11:1-15; 13; 14; 16; 20 and considerable portions of 1 Samuel 22; 23; 26 through 27; 29 through 31; 2 Sam 1 (in part); 2 through 6; 9 through 20. Some details have probably been derived from other sources, and additions made by the editor or editors. This general determination of sources rests upon a difference of standpoint and religious conception, and upon slighter varieties of style which are neither so pronounced nor so readily distinguished as in the books of the Pentateuch. It is reasonable also to bear in mind that a close and exact division or line of demarcation in every detail is not to be expected.
V. Character and Date of the Sources.
Attempts which have been made to determine the date of these two sources, or to identify them with one or other of the principal authorities from which the historical narratives of the Pentateuch are derived, have not been convincing. In the judgment of some, however, the later of the two sources should be regarded as a continuation of the narrative or document known as E, and the earlier be assigned to J. The style of the latter has much in common with the style of J, and is clear, vigorous and poetical; the religious conceptions also that are embodied and taught are of a simple and early type. The later writing has been supposed to give indications of the influence of the prophetic teaching of the 8th century. The indications, however, are not sufficiently decisive to enable a final judgment to be formed. If it is borne in mind that J and E represent rather schools of teaching and thought than individual writers, the characteristics of the two sources of the Books of Sam would not be out of harmony with the view that from these two schools respectively were derived the materials out of which the history was compiled. The sources would then, according to the usual view, belong to the 9th and 8th centuries before the Christian era; and to a period not more than a century or a century and a half later should be assigned the final compilation and completion of the book as it is contained in the Hebrew Canon of Scripture.
VI. Greek Versions of the Books of Samuel.
For an exact estimate and understanding of the history and text of the Books of Samuel count must further be taken of the Greek version or versions. In the Septuagint there is great divergence from the Hebrew Massoretic text, and it is probable that in the course of transmission the Greek has been exposed to corruption to a very considerable extent. At least two recensions of the Greek text are in existence, represented by the Vatican and Alexandrian manuscripts respectively, of which the latter is nearer to the Hebrew original, and has apparently been conformed to it at a later period with a view to removing discrepancies; and this process has naturally impaired its value as a witness to the primary shape of the Greek text itself. There are therefore three existing types of the text of Samuel; the Massoretic Hebrew and Codex Vaticanus and Codex Alexandrinus in the Greek. The original form of the Septuagint, if it could be recovered, would represent a text anterior to the Massoretic recension, differing from, but not necessarily superior to, the latter. For the restoration of the Greek text, the Old Latin, where it is available, affords valuable help. It is evident then that in any given instance the agreement of these three types or recensions of the text is the strongest possible witness to the originality and authenticity of a reading; but that the weight attaching to the testimony of A will not in general, on account of the history of its text, be equivalent to that of either of the other two.
VII. Ethical and Religious Teaching.
The religious teaching and thought of the two Books of Samuel it is not difficult to summarize. The books are in form a historical record of events; but they are at the same time and more particularly a history conceived with a definite purpose, and made to subserve a definite moral and religious aim. It is not a narrative of events solely, or the preservation of historical detail, that the writer has in view, but rather to elucidate and enforce from Israel’s experience the significance of the divine and moral government of the nation. The duty of king and people alike is to obey Yahweh, to render strict and willing deference to His commands, and on this path of obedience alone will national independence and prosperity be secured. With the strongest emphasis, and with uncompromising severity, sin even in the highest places is condemned; and an ideal of righteousness is set forth in language and with an earnestness which recalls the exhortations of Deuteronomy. Thus the same is true of the Books of Samuel as is manifest in the preceding books of the canonical Old Testament: they are composed with a didactic aim. The experience of the past is made to afford lessons of warning and encouragement for the present. To the writer or writers – the history of the development and upbuilding of the Israelite kingdom is pregnant with a deeper meaning than lies on the surface, and this meaning he endeavors to make plain to his readers through the record. The issues of the events and the events themselves are under the guidance and control of Yahweh, who always condemns and punishes wrong, but approves and rewards righteousness. Thus the narrative is history utilized to convey moral truth. And its value is to be estimated, not primarily as recording the great deeds of the past, but as conveying ethical teaching; that by means of the history with all its glamor and interest the people may be recalled to a sense of their high duty toward God, and be warned of the inevitable consequences of disobedience to Him.
Literature.
Upon all points of introduction, criticism and interpretation, the commentaries afford abundant and satisfactory guidance. The principal English commentaries. are by H. P. Smith in ICC, Edinburgh, 1899, and S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, 2nd edition, Oxford, 1913; A. R. S. Kennedy, Samuel, New Century Bible, New York, Frowde, 1905; in German by R. Budde, 1902, W. Nowack, 1902, A. Klostermann, 1887. See also the articles Samuel in HDB, Encyclopedia Biblica and Jewish Encyclopedia.
Fuente: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
Samuel, Books of
Samuel, Books of. The two books of Samuel were anciently reckoned as but one among the Jews, and that they form only one treatise is apparent from their structure.
The contents of these books belong to an interesting period of Jewish history. The preceding book of Judges refers to the affairs of the republic as they were administered after the Conquest, when the nation was a congeries of independent cantons, sometimes partially united for a season under an extraordinary dictator. As, however, the mode of government was changed, and remained monarchical till the overthrow of the kingdom, it was of national importance to note the time, method, and means of the alteration. This change happening under the regency of the wisest and best of their sages, his life became a topic of interest. The first book of Samuel gives an account of his birth and early call to the duties of a seer, under Eli’s pontificate; describes the low and degraded condition of the people, oppressed by foreign enemies; proceeds to narrate the election of Samuel as judge; his prosperous regency; the degeneracy of his sons, the clamor for a change in the civil constitution; the installation of Saul; his rash and reckless character; his neglect of, or opposition to the theocratic elements of the government. Then the historian goes on to relate God’s choice of David as king; his endurance of long and harassing persecution from the reigning sovereign; the melancholy defeat and death of Saul on the field of Gilboa; the gradual elevation of the man ‘according to God’s own heart’ to universal dominion; his earnest efforts to obey and follow out the principles of the theocracy; his formal establishment of religious worship at Jerusalem, now the capital of the nation; and his series of victories over all the enemies of Judea that had used to molest its frontiers. The annalist records David’s aberrations from the path of duty; the unnatural rebellion of his son Absalom, and its suppression; his carrying into effect a census of his dominions, and the Divine punishment which this act incurred; and concludes with a few characteristic sketches of his military staff. The second book of Samuel, while it relates the last words of David, yet stops short of his death. As David was the real founder of the monarchy and arranger of the religious economy; the great hero, legislator, and poet of his country; as his dynasty maintained itself on the throne of Judah till the Babylonian invasion; it is not a matter of wonder that the description of his life and government occupies so large a portion of early Jewish history. The books of Samuel thus consist of three interlaced biographiesthose of Samuel, Saul, and David.
The attempt to ascertain the authorship of this early history is attended with difficulty. Ancient opinion is in favor of the usual theory, that 1 Samuel 1-24 was written by Samuel, and the rest by Nathan and Gad. Various arguments have of late been brought against this opinion, but they are more ingenious than solid. The striking circumstance that these books do not record David’s death, though they give his last wordshis last inspired effusionafford, to say the least of it, a strong presumption that they must have been composed before that monarch ‘slept with his fathers.’
The design of these books is not very different from that of the other historical treatises of the Old Testament. The books of Kings are a history of the nation as a theocracy; those of Chronicles have special reference to the form and ministry of the religious worship, as bearing upon its re-establishment after the return from Babylon. Samuel is more biographical, yet the theocratic element of the government is not overlooked. It is distinctly brought to view in the early chapters concerning Eli and his house, and the fortunes of the ark; in the passages which describe the change of the constitution; in the blessing which rested on the house of Obed-Edom; in the curse which fell on the Bethshemites, and Uzzah and Saul, for intrusive interference with holy things. The book shows clearly that God was a jealous God; that obedience to him secured felicity; that the nation sinned in seeking another king; that Saul’s special iniquity was his impious oblivion of his station as only Jehovah’s vicegerent, for he disdained the prophets and slew the priesthood; and that David owed his prosperity to his careful culture of the sacred principle of the Hebrew administration. This early production contained lessons both for the people and for succeeding monarchs, bearing on it the motto, ‘Whatsoever things were written aforetime were written for our learning.’