Larry Crutchfielda
The Qumran Community (probably composed of Essenes) is very important to Biblical studies in that they are the ones who preserved the Dead Sea Scrolls, our oldest surviving Old Testament manuscripts.
According to the Jewish historian F1avius Josephus, “There are three philosophical sects among the Jews. The followers of the first … are the Pharisees; of the second the Sadducees; and the third sect, who pretend to a severer discipline, are called Essenes” (Jewish Wars, 2.8. 2 §119). The members of this later sect, owing chiefly to their virtuous and upright manner of life, seemed most to be admired by those who crossed their path. Yet of the three Jewish sects, the least is known about the Essenes.
In this brief study we will outline what is known of the origins, beliefs and practices of the Essenes;
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 104
examine the relationship, if any, between the Essenes and Qumran; and, finally, give some consideration to a “Gate of the Essenes” mentioned by Josephus, and its possible location in Jerusalem.
The Origin Of The Essenes
Their Name and Forebearers
There has been much debate over the meaning of the name “Essene.” Among the suggestions for the possible linguistic root are, “holy ones,” “healers,” “pious ones,”1 and a number of others, but none is really satisfactory. The confusion is easily understood if the name was not used by the sect as a self-description. And this was apparently the case, for even Philo writing in the first half of the 1st c. AD is uncertain of the meaning of the name. He writes, “Their name, which is, I think, a variation, though the form of the Greek is inexact, of aslotes (holiness), is given them, because they have shown themselves especially devout in the service of God” (Every Good Man Is Free, 12. §75).
If the meaning of the name “Essene” is obscure, it is perhaps fitting for a group about whose rise and origin we know very little. The first mention of the Essenes places them at the time of Jonathan Maccabaeus (161-143 BC) and deals with the “different opinions concerning human actions” (fate versus self-determination) held by the “three sects among the Jews” (Josephus, Ant. 13. 5. 9. §171). And in the reign of Aristobulus I (105 BC), we read of “one Judas, who was of the sect of the Essenes.” He was a prophet, Josephus tells us, “who never missed the truth in his predictions” (Ant. 13. 11.2. §311).
Their Number and Obscurity
It is not surprising that little is known about the origin of the Essenes, numbering about 4,000 (Jos. Ant. 18. I. 5. §20; Philo, loc. cit), when the circumstances are understood. The sect practiced secret and mysterious rites in a closed community of fellowship. And to insure that absolute secrecy regarding matters of belief and practice was maintained, the sect’s members were required to take stringent oaths bearing dire consequences if broken.
This goes far to explain why the Essenes are nowhere mentioned in the New Testament and referred to in Rabbinic sources only indirectly. On the other hand, because the Pharisees and Sadducees were so openly and vigorously involved in the religious and political life of Palestine in the New Testament period, their beliefs and practices are well-known to us (and were apparently best known to the disciples as well, Matt. 16:11, 12). Nevertheless, while there is much about the Essenes that remains a mystery, important sources of information have survived.
Sources On The Essenes
Josephus and Philo
The information that has come down to us concerning the Essenes is primarily from the Jewish historian Josephus ~ 37-98), in Jewish Wars 2. 8. 2-13, The Antiquities of the Jews 18. I. 5 (plus several other passages; cf. Beall), and The Life of FIavius Josephus I. 2. § 10–12, and the Jewish philosopher Philo (20 BC-AD 52), in Hypothetica 11. 1–18
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 105
and Every Good Man is Free 12–13, §75–91. As contemporaries of the Essenes and themselves Jews, Josephus and Philo naturally represent first-line sources on the life and doctrines of that sect.
Hippolytus and Pliny
In addition to Josephus and Philo, valuable data on the Es-senes can be gleaned from the Christian apologist and bishop Hippolytus (AD 170-ca. 230) in his Refutation of All Heresies. 9. 13-23, and though the notice is brief, from the work Natural History 5. 15 §73, produced by the Roman scholar Pliny the Eider (in AD 77).
The Life of the Essenes
The picture of the Essenes painted by Josephus and Philo is one of highly structured, peace-loving, predominantly agrarian and communal societies, who shunned cities in favor of small villages (but see Jos. J.W. 2. 8. 4. §124, and Philo Hypothetica 11. 1, where city-dwelling is mentioned). They are presented as a people who had a zeal for virtue and theological and moral instruction, but none for wealth and material goods. They held all things in common, including money, food, and clothing, so that neither sick nor old was ever in want of care, comfort, or companionship. Further, they had an interest in healing, prac-riced celibacy, opposed slavery and the taking of vows (except those required by their initiation ceremonies).
Their Initiation Rites
Initiation into the sect was a protracted affair taking three years to complete. As Josephus describes it (J.W. 2. 8. 7), the novitiate underwent an initial one-year probationary association with the sect to determine if he possessed the requisite basic character traits. If the candidate passed this “first muster,” he entered an additional two-year testing period to determine final worthiness. Successful completion of the second stage was climaxed by the taking of “tremendous oaths” which included among others, “piety towards God” and “justice towards men.” At that point, the novitiate was allowed to partake of the common food of the brotherhood as a full member. Subsequent violation of the community’s weightier laws, however, could result in expulsion from the fellowship by a tribunal of at least one hundred judges (J.W. 2.8. 8–9).
Their Communal Lifestyle
Entrance into the community meant forfeiture of all money and material goods. The Essenes were “despisers of riches,” says Josephus, and chose rather to hold all things in common. With everyone dressed in white garments and stewards appointed to take care of their common affairs, it is no wonder, concludes the historian, that “among them all there is no appearance of poverty or excess of riches” (J.W. 2. 8. 2).
Their Daily Routine
A typical day in the lives of the Essenes is described by Josephus (J.W. 2. 8. 5). He writes, “before sunrising they speak not a word about profane matters, but put up certain prayers which they have received from their forefathers.” After this time of prayer, the Essenes engaged in their various labors until the fifth hour (about 11 a.m.). At that time, they returned for a ritual bath and communal meal of simple fare. The meal was conducted in strict
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 106
Ritual baths (G on city plan) like these near the “Gate of the Essenes” (A on plan) would have been necessary for the daily purification rites of the Essenes living nearby.
order and was both preceded and followed by grace and praise to God for his provision. After the meal, labor was again resumed until evening, at which time the evening meal was taken in the same manner as that in the morning (J.W. 2.8. 5).
Their Worship and Beliefs
As for Essene worship, Philo says that they observed the seventh day with special zeal by total abstinence from labor and complete devotion to corporate worship in their “synagogues” (Every Good Man Is Free 81–82). To assist them in their training in piety, holiness, justice, proper conduct (both domestic and civil) and in the knowledge of good and evil, says Philo, the Essenes took three principles as their “defining standards”: “love of God” (demonstrated by their religious purity, abstinence from oaths, truthfulness, and belief in the absolute goodness of God), “love of virtue” (demonstrated by such things as rejection of money, reputation, and pleasure, and by self-mastery, frugality, contentment, humility, etc.), and “love of men” (demonstrated by the many aspects of communal living with a genuine spirit of mutual caring and sharing within the brotherhood) (Every Good Man. 84–87).
In his description of Essene religious practices, Josephus maintains that after God, the Essene society most venerated Moses (J.W. 2. 8. 9). Conse-
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 107
quently, the Essenes devoted themselves to careful study and practice of the Torah. Josephus relates, too, that certain Essenes were held in high esteem for their understanding of Old Testament prophecy and for their ability to foretell future events (e.g., Ant. 15. 10. 5; 17. 13. 3; J.W. 1.3. 5).
Josephus makes the interesting statement that the Essenes “do not offer sacrifices,2 because they have more pure lustrations of their own; on which account they are excluded from the common court of the temple, but offer their sacrifices themselves.” (Ant. 18. I. 5). If the Essenes were excluded from worship in Jerusalem, this would suggest another reason why they are not mentioned in the New Testament.
With regard to the Essene doctrine of the afterlife, there is disagreement between the accounts of Josephus and Hippolytus. Whereas Josephus ascribes to the Essenes the Hellenistic belief that the immortal soul is imprisoned in a mortal body and is freed to soar upward only upon death (J.W.2. 8. 11), Hippolytus relates that the Essenes “acknowledge both that the flesh will rise again, and that it will be immortal, in the same manner as the soul is already imperishable.” He adds further that “they affirm that there will be both a judgment and a conflagration of the universe, and that the wicked will be eternally punished” (Refutation 9. 22).
Their Uncommon Virtue
The one thing that seemed to most impress those who encountered the Essenes was their virtue. Philo remarks that “the ethical part they study very industriously” (Every Good Man, 80). Indeed, says Philo, “athletes of virtue” are produced by this philosophy, a philosophy which “sets its pupils to practise them-selves in laudable actions, by which the liberty which can never be enslaved is firmly established” (Every Good Man, 88). So great was the virtue of the Essenes, acording to Philo, that even the most savage of rulers were “unable to resist the high excellence of these people” (Every Good Man, 89–91) so that even “great kings look upon them with admiration and amazement, and the approbation and honours which they give add further veneration to their venerable name” (Hypothetica 11. 18).
In light of Christ’s words in Matthew 5:20, it is interesting to note Josephus’ evaluation of the Essenes’ virtue and righteousness. Jesus said, “unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Scribes and Pharisees, you shall not enter the kingdom of heaven.” Of the Essenes, Josephus writes:
It also deserves our admiration, how much they exceed all other men that addict themselves to virtue, and this in righteousness; and indeed to such a degree, that as it hath never appeared among any other men, neither Greeks nor barbarians, no, not for a little time, so hath it endured a long while among them. (Ant. 18. 1.5)
Their Geographical Location
The Essenes formed separate societies throughout Palestine (Philo Hypothetica 11. 1). But in his Natural History, Pliny the Elder, a first-century fellow soldier of Vespasian singles out one community of Essenes for special attention. In his topographical description of the West side of the Dead Sea from Jericho to the Masada fortress, he makes men-
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 108
Reconstruction Of Jerusalem’s Southwest Corner At The Time Of The New Testament
A. Gate of the Essenes
B. Southwest Corner Tower
C. Essene Path: 1. to Qumran 2. to Bethlehem
D. Gehinnom Valley
E. Pontius Pilate’s Water Conduit
F. Rock scarp under City Wall
G. Ritual Baths outside Gate
H. Bethso: Essene latrines
K. Ancient Graves (recently discovered)
L. Paved street to City in direction of the Temple
M. Eastern Gate to Essene Mahaneh (quarter)
O. Ritual Bath: rock hewn
Q. Coenaculum Building (upper room)
S. Herod’s Palace and Garden
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 109
tion of the “solitary tribe of the Essenes, which is remarkable beyond all the other tribes in the whole world, as it has no women and has renounced all sexual desire, has no money, and has only palm-trees for company” (Natural History 5. 15. §73).
Pliny’s detailed description of the geographical location of this particular Essene community is most important. He places it “on the west side of the Dead Sea” and north of Engedi (“Lying below the Essenes was formerly the town of Engedi”), near groves of palm trees (Natural History 5. 15. §73). “Next,” writes Pliny, “comes Masada, a fortress on a rock, itself also not far from the Dead Sea. This is the limit of Judaea.”
The Qumran Community and the Essenes
In light of Pliny’s topographical reference to the Essenes and the discoveries at the Qumran caves and Khirbet Qumran, the question naturally arises, “What, ff any, is the connection between the Essenes and the community at Qumran?” Scholars are divided in their answer to this question and have been since the Qumran discoveries. However, the evidence for identifying the Essenes with the Qumran community seems to us to be the more weighty.
The Chronological Factor
To begin with, Josephus and Pliny provide chronological and geographical evidence respectively, which suggests that the identification should indeed be made. Josephus’ account of the Essenes as existing from the middle of the 2nd c. BC during the time of Jonathan Maccabaeus (Ant.13. 5. 8–9), corresponds to the archaeological dating of the community at Qumran around 130 B.C. That community was violently overthrown between AD 66 and 70 during the first Jewish war, a war that culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem. Josephus records that many Essenes were martyred by the Romans during that war (J.W. 2. 8. I 0). The evidence that suggests a correlation between Josephus’ data on the “Gate of the Essenes” in Jerusalem and the Essene relationship with Herod during his reign (37–4 BC), and a break in the occupation of the Qumran site during the same period of time, is discussed below.
The Geographical Factor
The geographical markers given by Pliny for a party of the Essenes near the Dead Sea, surely points to Qumran. In his geographical tour of the area “On the west side of the Dead Sea,” Pliny begins after having just mentioned Jericho (Natural History 5. 15. 72). He advances in a southward direction to the Essene community, then to Engedi, and finally to Masada. Qumran is a perfect fit for this mini north-to-south tour of the west side of the Dead Sea. Qumran is eight miles south of Jericho; Engedi is twenty miles south of Qumran; and Masada is eleven miles south of Engedi.
The Literary Factor
In addition to the chronological evidence presented by Josephus and the geographical evidence found in Pliny, a comparison of the literary sources quoted above and the Qumran literature reveals many similarities between the Essenes and the Qumran community. It can be said, for example, that: (1) both were Jewish sects; (2) both lived communal lives, shared meals and property, and
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 110
had similar ranking and authority structures; (3) both had lengthy initiation rites and rejected all oaths (except those required for admission to the sect); (4) in religious practice, both partook of sacred meals, took ritual baths, disdained temple worship, emphasized purity, and meticulously observed the Sabbath; (5) both had expulsion procedures for serious transgressions of community law. Thus the Essenes and the Qumran community seem to have lived at the same time, in the same place, and engaged in many essentially identical practices and rituals.
It is true, of course, that there are also noteworthy differences between classical Essene and Qumran practices. Among these, we might mention: (1) separatistic policy at Qumran versus some evidence of Essene settlements in or near several cities (both Josephus and Philo place Essene societies in cities throughout Palestine; however, this does not negate the possibility of an isolated settlement at Qumran); (2) approval of marriage at Qumran versus rejection of matrimony by the Essenes described in classical sources (although Josephus does mention Essenes who married, J.W. 2. 8. 13); (3) novitiate of two years at Qumran versus the three-year period prescribed in classical references; (4) pacifism in the Essene communities described by classical writers versus militancy at Qumran; and (5) failure of the Qumran community to address the sun at dawn as was the practice of the Essenes in Josephus’ report (J.W. 2. 8. 5).
In view of the differences between the Essenes and the Qumran community, many have concluded that they could not have been the same people. Or at the most, they can only be related in some distant way, perhaps having broken away from a common parent group like the Hasidim mentioned in 1 Macabees 2:42. Whatever the objection to identifying the Essenes with the men of Qumran, as Frank Moore Cross points out in his article, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and the People Who Wrote Them,” it has serious obstacles to overcome. He writes:
The scholar who would “exercise caution” in identifying the sect of Qumran with the Essenes places himself in an astonishing position: he must suggest seriously that two major parties formed communistic religious communities in the same district of the desert of the Dead Sea and lived together in effect for two centuries, holding similar bizarre views, performing similar or rather identical lustrations, ritual meals, and ceremonies. He must suppose that one, carefully described by classical authors, disappeared without leaving building remains or even potsherds behind; the other, systematically ignored by the classical sources, left extensive ruins, and indeed a great library. I prefer to be reckless and flatly identify the men of Qurnmn with their perennial house guests, the Essenes [so do we] (BAR 3 [March 1977]: 29).
The Gate Of The Essenes
The Gate and Josephus
In further support of the identification of the Qumran community with the sect of the Essenes, we turn to Josephus’ account of “the gate of the Essenes.” In his description of Jerusalem, Josephus mentions a gate that opened upon the Hinnom (or Gehinnom) Valley (J.W. 5. 4. 2; note Essene path C leading to D on Jerusalem Plan that connected the “Gate of the Es-senes” with Qumran). This would seem to imply that a group of Essenes permanently resided in
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 111
Remains of the “Gate of the Essenes” (A on plan).
Gatepost socket and seating trough are clearly defined.
Jerusalem on Mt. Zion.3 Were these Essenes living in Jerusalem from Qumran originally? Some scholars believe they were.
Based upon the archaeological finds at Qumran, Cross says that:
We can conclude only that the people of the scrolls founded the community in the second half of the century B.C. and occupied it with a brief interruption in the reign of Herod the Great, until the dreadful days of the Jewish Revolt which culminated in the Roman destruction of the Jewish State (“The Dead Sea Scrolls” BAR 3 [March 1977]: 23). What happened during this “brief interruption in the reign of Herod the Great”? Where did the men of Qumran go?
The Gate and Herod
That the Essenes were honored by Herod the Great we know from Josephus (Ant. 15. 10. 4–5). The historian says that an Essene named Menahem “had the foreknowledge of future events given him by God” and seeing Herod when he was a child said, “thou wilt be king, and wilt begin thy reign happily, for God finds thee worthy of it…” After Herod had reigned for some years, he sent for Manahem and made inquiry as to how long his reign would endure. The Essene indicated that Herod would be king for 20 to 30 years, “but did not assign the just determinate limit of his reign.” Says Josephus, “Herod was satisfied with these replies, and gave Mena-
BSP 2:4 (Autumn 1989) p. 112
hem his hand, and dismissed him, and from that time he continued to honour all the Essenes.”
This cosy relationship between Herod and the Essenes was cemented, no doubt, by their common antipathy for the Hasmoneans. The Hasmoneans claimed to be the rightful heirs to the high priestly office and thus caused the Essene Zadokite priestly office to fail. The Hasmoneans maintained also that the throne of Judea rightfully belonged to them, not to the Herods. Consequently, several abortive attempts were made to unseat the Herodian monarchs. Josephus reports one particularly astute political move by Herod concerning the Essenes. Herod required all Jews to swear an oath of fidelity to him. While most of the Jews complied with the order, Josephus says that many of the Jewish scholars, following the Pharisee Pollio, refused to comply, and did so with impunity because of the reverence Herod bore for them. The Essenes, however, were exempted outright from taking the oath (Ant. 15. 10. 4). This good relationship between Herod the Great and the Essenes coupled with an occupation gap at Qumran coinciding roughly with Herod’s reign (37–4 BC), has led some scholars to believe that the Qum-ran group moved their headquarters to Jerusalem during Herod’s rule and then returned to the Qumran site after Herod’s death.
The Gate and Scripture4
In addition to its significance for secular history, the “Gate of the Essenes” has a certain Biblical significance as well. The “upper room” of the Last Supper (Mk 14:15) and of Pentecost (Acts 1:13) has been placed by tradition in this southwestern comer of Jerusalem, Just north of the “Gate of the Essenes” (see “coenaculum” on Jerusalem Plan). And it was “the Gate of the Essenes” that opened upon the Hinnom (or Gehinnom) Valley where continually burning refuse provided a ready figure for the unending fires of hell (Mk 9:43, 45, 47). Archaeological efforts to uncover this important structure from antiquity were begun in 1979. With its discovery, perhaps more will be learned about that group of men who “exceed[ed] all other men that addict themselves to virtue and this in righteousness” (Josephus, Ant. 18. 1.5).
For more information see:
William S. LaSor, “Discovering What Jewish Mikva’ot Can Tell Us About Christian Baptism,” BAR, Jan-Feb 1987: 52–59.
Bryant G. Wood, “To Dip or Sprinkle? The Qumran Cisterns in Perspective,” BASOR 256, Fall 1984:45–60.