First of Three Parts
John J. Davis
The excavation of burials has long been a matter of fascination and mystery for both young and old. Reactions by modern observers to this part of the archaeological field process are often mixed. There are those who consider the excavation of tombs as an act of desecration that cannot be justified. Others view the process with casual curiosity. Archaeologists regard it as necessary to the complete reconstruction of a society and its cultural traditions.
This is the first of a three-pan series in which we will explore the purposes of burial excavation, the methods employed, and the impact it has on understanding Biblical history and culture.
Early History
Unfortunately, the history of tomb exploration is not noted for its scientific sophistication. In fact, the motives and methods early explorers used to open and explore tombs is an archaeological embarrassment.
Typical of the brutal methods was the work of Giovanni Battista Belzoni in Egypt. Having located the entrance of a royal tomb in the western Valley of the Kings, he proceeded to open it with a battering ram made of two palm logs (Baikie n.d.: 12). Belzoni’s own account of his work is enough to send chills up the spine of the modern excavator.
Elaborating on his experience inside the tomb, Belzoni stales; “Every step I took I crushed a mummy in some part or other” (Belzoni 1966:141). Elsewhere he relates
that the tomb … was choked with mummies, and I could not pass without putting my face in contact with that of some decayed Egyptian; but as the passage inclined downward, my own weight helped me on; however, I could not avoid being covered with bones, legs, arms, and heads rolling from above (Belzoni 1966:141).
In one European archaeological report the observation is made that “where necessary, the dolmens [tombs] were blasted, the circle of stones removed…” (Wheeler 1954:113). In Italy, the pursuit of buried treasure both in and out of tombs, was carried on by the use of tunnels which often destroyed as much artifactual material as was recovered (Deiss 1966:22–28).
Author analyzing tool impressions in a Roman tomb
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Osteologist Tom Kick examines a skull from an early Roman tomb at Abila.
There are at least two reasons why such crude methodologies were employed. First, it was a period of exploration when historical, cultural and anthropological concerns were minimal, if not entirely absent. The principle goal of many tomb excavations in the 18th and early 20th centuries was largely to recover valuable objects for European collectors. Second, many tombs were located and excavated for the sole purpose of recovering artifactual materials suitable for display in museums, or to satisfy the demands of a heavily financed expedition. The principal goal of many excavations was clearly object retrieval, not data retrieval.
Principal Elements in Burial Practices
There are three elements to burial practices in all cultures which are of critical interest to both anthropologists and archaeologists: burial ritual (disposal of the body), the mourning ritual (adjustment of the living), and the memorial ritual (re-adjustment to society).
The first of these is one of special interest to archaeologists. The treatment of the body is often a clue to the ideas the living had about death and the afterlife. For example, the Egyptian practice in the Predynastic Period of burying a body in the fetal position, with the knees drawn up under the chin and the hands normally lying before the face, signified that the earth was a “womb” out of which new life would come.
The Jewish and Christian tradition of inhumation rather than cremation was predicated on the fact that the body was a creation of God and should be respected even in disposition after death. The religions also practiced simple burial because of the hope of a bodily resurrection and it was assumed that inhumation was the best way to symbolize that belief (for full discussion of these matters, see Davis 1998).
Jewish burial tradition required that the body be buried as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours (Dt 21:23). To allow a body to decay or be desecrated above ground was dishonorable (1 Kgs 14:10–14; 2 Kgs 9:34–37) and any corpse found along the wayside had to be buried (2 Sm 21:10–14).
The Bible does not systematically describe the Hebrew burial ritual in detail, but it does record a number of the features of that ritual. Joseph, for example, closed the eyes of Jacob soon after his death (Gn 46:4). Jesus’ body was prepared for burial by anointing it with oils and spices, after which it was wrapped with linen cloth (Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1; Jn 19:39).
Mourning rituals in the Old Testament included a number of elements: (1) baldness or cutting of the beard, (2) tearing the garments or wearing sackcloth, (3) loud, agonizing weeping and (4) scattering dust on the head and body as well as sitting in ashes (see 2 Sm 1:11–12; 13:31; 14:2; Is 3:24; 22:12; Jer 7:29; Ez 7:18; Jl 1:8).
Remains of a wood coffin, Abilia Tomb H-1, Roman.
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As part of their mourning ritual, the Canaanites practiced cutting the flesh. An illustration of this is El’s mourning over the death of Baal in the Baal Epic, “He cuts a gash with a stone, incisions with …. He gashes his cheeks and his chin …” (Pritchard 1955:139). On Mount Carmel the priests of Baal cut themselves in the contest with Elijah (1 Kgs 18:28). They were mourning their own impending death and didn’t know it (1 Kgs 18:40)! This practice, however, was strictly forbidden among the Hebrews: “You shall not make any cuts in your body for the dead, nor make any tattoo marks on yourselves: I am the LORD (Lv 19:28 cf. 21:5; Dt 14:1, also Jer 16:6). Israel and Judah evidently did practice this at times (Jer 41:4; 47:5; Ez 7:18; Am 8:10; Mi 1:16).
Roman Tomb F-31, Tell Hisban
Purposes of Burial Excavations
There are several goals of tomb excavations. The following is a partial list.
First, it is to define the cultural characteristics of those buried including their wealth, social standing, and religious beliefs.
Second, the field archaeologist is interested in the physical characteristics of the individual bones. Osteological analysis can provide information on sex identity, height, weight, diet, age at death, and pathologies. A variety of diseases affect bone densities and morphologies. Sometimes family genetic markers can be detected in bone material and this can be important in determining if a tomb was used by a close family group or a wider community. Types of teeth wear often give evidence of certain food preferences.
Third, the position of articulated burials and their relationship to artifactual assemblages aid the archaeologist in distinguishing between fixed traditions at a site and the introduction of new customs. Such artifactual assemblages often include complete pots, lamps, or bowls which are invaluable in reconstructing broken materials found in the tell.
Fourth, the geotectural features of a rock-cut tomb are also of importance to the interpretation of mortuary traditions of a site. (The term “geotecture” more accurately describes subterranean rock-cut tombs, while “architecture” is best used for rock, brick or wood burial structures built above ground.) These features include tomb design, size, and rock-cutting techniques. The latter requires careful study of the tool marks in a tomb to determine the number and types of tools used, as well as the stroke patterns of the mason.
Finally, the stratigraphic record in soil deposits inside a tomb as well as outside the entrance provides data as to the sequences of use and/or abandonment. Excavating burials is detective work at its best! Every detail of the site is important to the interpretation of the burial and the associated culture.
In part two we will examine the methods employed as we continue to explore this fascinating aspect of field archaeology.
Bibliography
Baikie, J.
1924 A Century of Excavation in the Land of the Pharaohs, London: Religious Tract Society.
Bellzoni, G.B.
1966 A Cache of Mummies at Thebes. Pp. 140–42 in Hands on the Past, ed. C.W. Ceram. New York: Knopf.
Davis, J. J.
1998 What About Cremation? A Christian Perspective. Winona Lake IN: Pinegrove.
Deiss, J.J.
1966 Herculaneum. New York: Crowell.
Pritchard, J.B. (ed.)
1955 Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Wheeler, M.
1954 Archaeology from the Earth. Baltimore: Penguin.
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