Stanislao Loffreda
[Stanislao Loffreda, O.F.M., participated in the Franciscan excavations at Capernaum between 1968 and 1977. He has written a number of the final excavation reports.]
The identification of the old town of Capernaum is firmly based on the evidence of literary sources and archaeological data.
According to literary sources, Capernaum was near the lake (Matthew 4:13; Eusebius), two miles from Eptapegon (now called et-Tabgha: Theodosius), and not far from the Jordan river (Daniel). The town stretched from east to west, having the lake shore to the south and hills to the north (Arculfus).
Besides, literary sources make it clear that Capernaum was already a town at the time of Jesus (first century A.D.) and that it was inhabited during the Roman and Byzantine periods. From the seventh century on, sources are very rare, no doubt because the site had become unsecure for pilgrims. Only few houses of poor fishermen are recorded by visitors in the thirteenth century (Burchardus, Rabbi Ishak Chelo).
Two main buildings are mentioned by pilgrims, namely a synagogue approached by many steps and built with well-dressed stones, and the house of Saint Peter.
Archaeological excavations fully confirmed these data.
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Capernaum the Town of Jesus
The town of Capernaum was chosen by Jesus as the center of His ministry in Galilee:
Leaving Nazareth, He went and dwelt in Capernaum by the sea, in the territory of Zebulun and Naphtali, that what was spoken by the prophet Isaiah might be fulfilled (Matthew 4:13–14).
Jesus did not possess His own house here:
Foxes have holes, and birds of the air have their nests; but the Son of man has nowhere to lay His head. (Matthew 8:20).
Most probably He dwelt in the House of St. Peter. His relatives and His mother Mary remained in Nazareth. One day these went to Capernaum to take Him back to Nazareth:
Then He went home, and the crowd came together again, so that they could not even eat. And when His friends heard it, they went out to seize Him, for they said: He is beside Himself… And His mother and His brothers came, and standing outside they sent to Him and called Him… (Mark 3:20–35).
It was in Capernaum and in the vicinity that Jesus chose several of His apostles, namely Matthew, who was previously a tax collector (Mark 2:14), Simon Peter and his brother Andrew (Mark 1:16) who owned a house in the town (Mark 1:29), John and James, the sons of Zebedee (Mark 1:19).
Here in Capernaum Jesus preached and performed many miracles. On a sabbath He entered the Synagogue and cured a man with an unclean spirit (Mark 1:21–28). Soon afterwards He left the Synagogue and entered the house of Simon Peter and Andrew:
Now Simon’s mother-in-law lay sick with a fever, and immediately they told Him of her. And He came and took her by the hand and lifted her up, and the fever left her; and she served them (Mark 1:29–31).
In Capernaum Jesus cured also a servant of a Roman centurion, who was friendly to the Jews and built the Synagogue for them. Jesus praised the great faith of the centurion in these words: “I tell you, not even in Israel have I found such faith” (Luke 7:1–10).
On another occasion Jesus brought back to life a daughter of Jairus, a ruler of the Synagogue (Luke 8:40–56).
The Synagogue was finally the scene of the famous sermon on the bread of life:
I am the living bread which came down from heaven; if any one eats of this bread, he will live forever; and the bread which I shall give for the life of the world is my flesh (John 6:25–59).
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Capernaum: The partially restored Synagogue (top), Insula II (center), and the remains of the Byzantine church built above St. Peter’s house (bottom).
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History of Capernaum
The site is never mentioned in the Old Testament. Most probably it was founded in the second century B.C. In fact the earliest coins found so far belong to Antiochus III (223-187 B.C.) and Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.). The evidence from the pottery suggests the same date for the beginning of Capernaum, at least in the areas so far excavated.
Another important fact is that the town did not suffer any drastic destruction in the First and Second Jewish Revolts against the Romans. This we know both from the stratigraphy and from the coins which show no break in this period. Being an unwalled town of little importance and lacking any natural defense, Capernaum did not participate in the struggle against the Romans. As a result, the general layout of the buildings remained unchanged for several centuries. The main walls underwent only minor changes, while the stone pavements of the houses were replaced from time to time, providing us with a good sequence of levels.
Of course, Capernaum grew also in extent and new quarters were added through the centuries. The old town stretched along the lake shore on the south side of the Synagogue. On the contrary the houses along the eastern and northern sides of the Synagogue were constructed mostly in the fourth century A.D.
From the fourth century on, the standard of life improved considerably in Capernaum. Walls were built with mortar, and imported or sophisticated types of pottery increased considerably.
The Jewish Revolt under Constantius Gallus (354 A.D.) did not affect the town. While several cities of Galilee were destroyed at the time, life continued unchanged in Capernaum through the whole length of the Byzantine period.
The town, however, did not withstand the Arab conquest of the Holy Land. Life became unsecure on this side of the lake and Capernaum was slowly abandoned. Coins and pottery mark a complete break after about 700 A.D. Only in the 12th century some dwellings with late 12th century coins and pottery appear near the surface. In the 13th century Burchardus could write: “The once renowned town of Capernaum is at present just despicable; it numbers only seven houses of poor fishermen.”
In our days Capernaum numbers two houses: the Franciscan Monastery and a Greek Orthodox Church to the east.
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Description of the Town
How large was Capernaum in its glorious days? Judging from a survey made in 1971, the town stretched for some 500 meters along the lake shore, while from the lake to the northern hills it hardly reached 250 meters. The description given by Arculfus (670 A.D.) is pertinent: Capernaum “squeezed as it is in a narrow space between the lake and the hills, stretches for a long distance along the shore.”
The area recently excavated between the synagogue and the Octagonal Church, Insula II, gives a good idea of an “insula,” that is to say, of a distinct group of private houses. The “insula” is limited by two parallel streets running from east to west, while a broad street from north to south can be seen to the east going from the Synagogue to the Octagonal Church.
The plan of the “insula” is fairly regular and it is distinguished by several courtyards flanked by roofed rooms. The large courtyards were actually the focal point of the houses, and were provided with ovens, grinding stones, and with stairways leading to the flat roofs. Several families lived together in a patriarchal fashion, sharing the same courtyard and the same exit. Only the doorways leading to the streets show door-jambs still in place and therefore were true doorways to be opened and closed at leisure. On the contrary all the other internal openings remained unclosed.
Walls were constructed with undressed basalt stones; for a long time (down to the fourth century A.D.), only mud and small pebbles were employed to fasten the stones. As a result, walls were not strong enough to support an upper story. The roof of such one story houses was very light, being made up of mud mixed with straw (see Mark 2:1–12 which tells about the paralytic let down through the roof), and it was reached from the courtyard by a flight of steps. Judging from the steps still in place, the rooms were hardly three meters high. Drainage and toilets were not used. To sum up, this “insula” just in front of the most splendid Synagogue ever found in the Holy Land, was very unpretentious and poor. It is not impossible, however, that more sophisticated buildings will be found in the future excavations.
The House of St. Peter
At first glance, the “Insula Sacra” looks like a labyrinth of walls. Actually this area was inhabited for some seven centuries, from the
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Insula II between the Synagogue and the Octagonal Church.
first century B.C. to the end of the Byzantine period (seventh century A.D.). As a result, it underwent several changes: old houses were destroyed and other buildings rose upon them. Three main levels can be distinguished.
Level 1: layout of private houses of the first century B.C.
Level 2: An enclosure wall is built. Some houses on the west side are destroyed, while new rooms are added to a special house (fourth century A.D.).
Level 3: All the houses of the preceding levels are destroyed and an octagonal building is constructed (mid-fifth century A.D.).
The private houses of level 1 are the same as those belonging to area n. 9 in the south side of the Synagogue. The only difference is that they are much poorer. Being close to the shore, the houses may have belonged to fishermen. Actually fishing hooks were found in one of these houses. One can easily reconstruct rooms, rectangular
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in plan, crowded around small courtyards with ovens. Life was not easy for those fishermen: we wonder how they could stand the heat of this area, packed as they were in such narrow rooms with light roofs.
Yet, the excavation of these poor dwellings resulted in the most exciting discovery. One of these houses, upon which the central octagon was built later on, has been identified as the house of St. Peter. The identification is based on archaeological findings and on literary sources. We will discuss both of them separately.
The Archaeological Evidence
The house was built at the very end of the Hellenistic period (first century B.C.). In the second half of the first century A.D. some peculiar features set apart this building from all the others so far excavated in Capernaum. Here, in fact, the pavements received floors of lime several times. Interesting enough, many pieces of
Plan of the Insula Sacra built over the house of St. Peter. Level 1: private houses (first century B.C. — fourth century A.D.). Level 2: the enlarged house of St. Peter with an enclosure wall around it (fourth century A.D.). Level 3: the Octagonal Church built on the house of St. Peter (mid-fifth century A.D.).
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broken lamps were found in the thin layers of lime.
In the following centuries, the roughly built walls were plastered at least three times. The numerous pieces of plaster rescued in the excavations bear clear witness to the sacred character of this house. One hundred and thirty-one inscriptions were found. They were written in four languages, namely: in Greek (110), Aramaic (10), Estrangelo (9) and Latin (2).
The name of Jesus appears several times. He is called Christ, the Lord, and the Most High God. An inscription in Estrangelo mentions the Eucharist.
There are also symbols and monograms, namely: crosses of different forms, a boat, the monogram of Jesus. The name of St. Peter occurs at least twice: his monogram is written in Latin but with Greek letters. In another graffito St. Peter is called the helper of Rome. A third inscription mentions Peter and Berenike. This Peter, however, might be the name of a pilgrim.
On several hundred pieces of plaster, decorative motifs appear. The colors employed are: green, blue, yellow, red, brown, white and black. Among the subjects one can distinguish floral crosses, pomegranates, figs, trifolium, stylized flowers and geometric designs such as circles, squares, etc.
Turning to level 2 (mid-fourth century A.D.), we witness several interesting changes in the area, stressing the importance of that house. First of all, the house was provided with a new ceiling. This was supported by a central arch extending from north to south. At the same time the building was enlarged by means of additional rooms on its east and north sides. Finally, that house was separated from the rest of the town by a special enclosure with openings on the north and south sides.
Level 3 (mid-fifth century A.D.) marks the final and the most ambitious phase in the history of the house. At this time all the private houses of the “insula” were destroyed and a Church was built upon their ruins.
The plan of the Church consists of a central octagon, built exactly on the foundations of the venerated house, and enclosed by another octagon, while an outer portico leads to the interior of the Church and to the eastern sacresties. An apse with a baptistery was built in the center of the east side. The floor was paved with mosaics. In the central octagon the mosaic floor shows a beautiful peacock.
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Isometric reconstruction of the Insula Sacra, Level I (first century B. C. — fourth century A.D.).
The Literary Sources
1. The Gospels inform us that a house of St. Peter was in Capernaum.
St. Matthew, who was previously a tax-collector in Capernaum and later on became a disciple of Jesus (Mark 2:14), writes:
And when Jesus entered THE HOUSE OF PETER, he saw his mother-in-law lying sick with a fever; He touched her hand, and the fever left her, and she rose and served Him (Matthew 8:14–15).
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That the house of St. Peter was in Capernaum is clearly stated by St. Mark:
And they went to CAPERNAUM; and immediately on the sabbath He (Jesus) entered the Synagogue (Mark 1:21).
After describing a miracle of Jesus in the Synagogue (Mark 1:23–28) St. Mark continues:
And immediately He left the Synagogue and with James and John entered the HOUSE OF SIMON and Andrew. Now Simon’s mother-in-law lay sick with fever, and immediately they told Him of her. And He came and took her by the hand and lifted her up, and the fever left her; and she served them (Mark 1:29–31).
2. Jews who converted to Christianity lived in Capernaum during the first centuries of the Christian era.
This we learn from Jewish sources, where the Judeo-Christians are called Minim (heretics). We read this story:
Hanina, the son of R. Joshua’s brother, came to Capernaum, and the Minim worked a spell on him and made him ride an ass on the sabbath. He went to his uncle Joshua, who anointed him with oil and he recovered (from the spell, Joshua) said to him: Since the ass of that wicked person has roused itself against you, you are no longer able to reside in the land of Israel. So he went from there to Babylon where he died in peace (Midrash Rabbah, Ecclesiastes 1:8 § 4).
Here is another passage (ibidem, VII, 26 § 3):
Rabbi Issi of Caesarea commented on a biblical verse (comparing goodness and sin) by referring to the opinion of Minim: Good refers to Rabbi Hanina, the nefew of Rabbi Yehoshua; Sinner to the inhabitants of Kfar Nahum.
The last remark clearly means that the Judeo-Christians were very numerous at the time of Rabbi Issi (fourth century A.D.).
3. At the beginning of the fifth century the house of St. Peter was still standing, but it had been previously changed into a church.
This we learn from Eteria, a Spanish pilgrim, who wrote in her diary:
In Capernaum the house of the Prince of the Apostles (= St. Peter) became a church. The walls, however, (of that house) have remained unchanged to the present day.
The passage of Eteria is of the utmost importance, because it describes the venerated house as it was found in our level 2. Eteria in fact speaks of a Domus-Ecclesia (private house for liturgical purposes); secondly, she states that the house had been converted
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Isometric reconstruction of the Insula Sacra, Level 2, a “Domus Ecclesia’, (mid-fourth century A.D.).
into a church in the past (facta est = became); finally she identifies the building with the house of St. Peter, no doubt because local Christians had kept alive this tradition.
4. In the sixth century A.D. an anonymous pilgrim from Piacenza (Italy) saw a basilica on the spot of St. Peter’s house: “We came to Capernaum in the house of St. Peter, which is now a basilica.”
Notice how the pilgrim speaks no longer of a Domus-Ecclesia, but simply of a basilica on the site of St. Peter’s house. This description fits our level 3 very well. The pilgrim was no longer able to see that house, buried under the raised pavement of the church. Yet, the tradition was still very strong about its identification. This tradition was never forgotten through the centuries. On the other hand, only the recent excavations provided archaeological support
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for it.
Conclusion
Literary sources and recent archaeological discoveries make the identification of the house of St. Peter in Capernaum virtually certain.
This house was built about the first century B.C. It became a center of religious gatherings (Domus-Ecclesia) already in the second half of the first century A.D. Judeo-Christians (Minim), who were so numerous and lived continuously in Capernaum, kept alive this tradition; their graffitos on the plastered walls of the Domus-Ecclesia testify to their faith in Jesus, the Christ, the Lord, the Most High God, and to their veneration for St. Peter. After Constantine the Great, non-Jewish Christians were also able to visit this sacred house. These took over the sanctuary in the middle of the fifth century and built a splendid octagonal church with baptistery on the same spot.
The Synagogue at Capernaum
The Synagogue was built upon an artificial platform in a dominant and central part of the town. In this respect, it reflects well known Jewish prescriptions: “A Synagogue… must be higher than any other edifice built for ordinary use.’”… “Any town, whose roofs are higher than the Synagogue, will end in destruction.”
This prominent position was stressed by four streets separating the building from the rest of the town. The roofs of the private houses, recently excavated on its east and south sides, hardly reached the level of the stone pavement of the Synagogue.
Three stairways led from the streets to the Synagogue: one was located on the southeast corner, one on the southwest, and a third one, discovered in 1971, on the northeast corner of the edifice.
There was no town square in front of the Synagogue, since this area was densely populated. This fact made it impossible to plan a direct and axial approach from the south. As a matter of fact, some private houses had to be destroyed in the area when the Synagogue was built. The architects, however, coped with this situation by devising a narrow open porch along the south side which was reached laterally by two stairways.
The building consisted of two different structures, namely the Synagogue proper or prayer hall, and a courtyard to the east. The Synagogue was built independently. Soon afterwards the courtyard
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Plan of the Octagonal Church built in the fifth century A.D. on the house of St. Peter.
was added against the east wall and a store room with outer steps against the northwest corner.
The Synagogue was planned as a rectangular basilica with a stylobate running parallel to the east, north and west walls. As a result, the ground plan consisted of a central nave flanked by aisles. Side benches were set along the east and west walls. The prayer hall was entered from the southern open porch through three doorways. The focal point of the Synagogue was on the south side, facing Jerusalem; here, in fact, the foundations of two structures were found on both sides of the main entrance. The reconstruction of an upper gallery for women is not very probable (though it cannot be regarded as altogether impossible); in fact, the foundations of the Synagogue seem to be too weak to support an upper story.
The courtyard was planned as a trapezoidal open space surrounded by a roofed portico on the north, east and south. Access to the courtyard was provided by several doorways, two on the south, and three on the north. On the east side there were windows. Finally, the courtyard directly communicated with the prayer hall through a doorway in the dividing wall.
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Chronology of the Synagogue
The late second-early third century chronology proposed by Watzinger has been accepted until now by most archaeologists. This theory, however, based only on stylistic and historical considerations lacks archaeological support. After several months of excavations both inside and around the building, we reached the conclusion that the Synagogue was much later: it was built in the late fourth/fifth century A.D.
The archaeological evidence for this late chronology comes from several contexts. First of all we can distinguish three main strata in the construction of the Synagogue:
Stratum 1: the buildings buried under the Synagogue.
Stratum 2: the fill of the platform.
Stratum 3: the layer of mortar under the stone pavement.
Stratum 1: buildings buried under the Synagogue.
The Synagogue of Capernaum was not built on virgin soil; in fact, the northern stylobate rests on two superimposed pavements of basalt stones. The same is true of the northern and western walls of the prayer hall. Finally, under the level of the street along the south side of the Synagogue, a wall was found, running under the foundations of the porch. In the 1972 campaign, additional data became available. A very long wall, running parallel to the northern face of the prayer hall, turned up to continue under the foundations of the store room, located on the northwestern corner of the Synagogue. Besides, a well-constructed drain was traced for several meters under the northern street of the building. This drain was clearly put out of use with the construction of the Synagogue: in fact, it was blocked by the northeastern stairway. A side-branch of the same drain continues under the courtyard and it was blocked by the foundations of that structure.
Judging from the coins and from a great amount of pottery found in this level, we must conclude that the buildings had been destroyed in the second half of the fourth century A.D. In fact, in the occupational level of a house, the pavement of which runs under the northern wall and the northern stylobate of the prayer hall, a coin of either Constantius II or Constans (341–346) was found together with types of pottery from the Late Roman period (fourth and early fifth century). Secondly, under the level of the southern street, three coins bring us to the very end of the fourth century (383–395). The latest types of pottery suggest the same date.
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Plan of the Synagogue at Capernaum.
Stratum 2: the fill of the platform.
Because of the slope from north to south and from west to east, an artificial platform was needed. The fill reaches the depth of three meters on the south and southeast sides. Here again the evidence from the coins and pottery points to the second half of the fourth century A.D. A coin dated to 352–360 was found in trench I (inside the main entrance of the prayer hall). In trench IV (south side of the courtyard) two coins were found at a depth of 1.25m. below the stone pavement. The first one was issued in honor of Constantinus the Great after his death (341–346), while the other belongs to Constantius II (352–360). Late Roman pottery was present in the fill.
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Stratum 3: the layer of mortar.
The fill of stratum 2 was hermetically sealed by a layer of mortar upon which the stone pavement of the building was laid. The average thickness of the mortar is 30 cms. We were able to trace the main outlines of the missing stones by cleaning the top face of the mortar. It is obvious that the stone pavement was placed while the mortar was still soft. Here coins were found by the thousands. Most of them belong to the end of the fourth and to the first half of the fifth century A.D. (Honorious, Arcadius, Theodosius, Valentinianus, Eudoxia). Less numerous are the coins belonging to the first half of the fourth century. It must be stressed that several coins were still imbedded in the thick layer of mortar, and therefore they are decisive for the dating of the stone pavement.
Sixty-seven bronze coins were rescued from the foundations of the side benches; the chronology is again the same: fourth and early fifth century A.D.
The evidence from the street level points to the same conclusion. All the coins (140 pieces) belong to the Late Roman and Byzantine periods. Only two coins belong to the second and third century A.D. Pottery is very late everywhere in the level of the street. It must be stressed that late fourth century coins were found even immediately above virgin soil and near the foundations of the east wall of the court. Finally, in some pieces of stuccos, which originally covered the south wall of the prayer hall, fragments of Late Roman pottery were found.
Restoration of the Synagogue according to Watzinger.
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A miniature shrine on wheels, perhaps representing the movable Ark of the Law. It is part of a frieze which is thought to have been on the inner north side of the Synagogue.
In conclusion the late fourth/fifth century chronology of the Synagogue is based upon archaeological data which cannot be disregarded as an accidental occurrence or as intrusions.
There is no doubt that a Synagogue was in Capernaum at the time of Jesus (Mark 1:21; John 6:59). It is quite possible that it was located not far from the fourth/fifth century Synagogue. Excavations in Capernaum are still under way and there is still a hope of finding the Synagogue of Jesus.
(Reprinted from A Visit to Capharnaum by S. Loffreda, Franciscan Printing Press, Jerusalem, 1977.)
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