Colonel David G. Hansen (USA Ret.), Ph.D.
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Introduction
In a recent article for this journal, I suggested that knowing the geographical context of Biblical events could help the reader better understand the total message of the Bible (Hansen 2005). Since the original readers and hearers of the Old Testament stories were familiar with the geography of ancient Israel, they could make important connections that helped explain how the character of God was revealed through places and events. Unfortunately, thousands of years later and even more miles away, our modern Western perspective, coupled with our unfamiliarity with Biblical geography, frequently obscures the Bible’s message of who God is and how He does things.
To illustrate the point in my 2005 article, I examined the history, archaeology and role of Shechem/Sychar in the Old and New Testaments. From Abram’s first encounter with God’s promise of salvation for all mankind in the Old Testament (Gn 12:6–7) to Jesus’ proclamation that He was the fulfillment of those promises in the New (Jn 4:5–26), Shechem was an integral part of the Biblical story of redemption and a place of blessings and curses.
In the present article I will examine another city, Gibeon— mentioned at least 40 times in the Old Testament—its sister towns, and the geography of the area, to illustrate God’s character and nature. Gibeon’s strategic location, overlooking a militarily important road system, is central to recognizing how God used an indigenous people to assist the Israelites in conquering the land. In the process, God showed mercy to those who accepted Him as the one true God. Further, our study will show that God honors those who are committed to His service.
The following study will also illuminate how God cares for all mankind and does what we would call “unusual” things to further His purposes. It is my belief that “Scripture expresses the nature of the world in which we live and reveals God’s nature, character and purposes through relationships with real people, in real time, and in real places so that God might be revealed as the One who desires relationship with the living” (Martin et al. 2004: 9).
©2006 Dr. James C. Martin. All Rights Reserved.
The site of Gibeon. The modern village of el-Jib is seen on the north side, left, of this hill and the undeveloped southern end covers the Biblical city of Gibeon, one of the four Hivite towns that surrendered to Joshua. Note the large valley that circumscribes the hill in which the Amorite army gathered to attack Gibeon. Overnight, Joshua came up from the Jordan Valley and attacked over the hills in the background ,dispersing the assembled Amorites.
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Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com
Central Benjamin plateau, viewed from the south. Nebi Samwil, the highest point on the plateau, is in the foreground. The hills in the background are the border of the tribe of Ephraim. The area in between is the Benjamin plateau.
Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com
The Beth Horon road descending west towards the coastal plain from the Benjamin plateau. Gibeon guarded the eastern end of this road, Gezer the western.
Gibeon’s Location
Located 5.5 mi (8.9 km) north of Jerusalem, ancient Gibeon is on a small limestone hill presently occupied by the modern Arab village of el-Jib. It is adjacent to the east-west road system that crosses the Benjamin plateau and has been important from ancient to modern times. The eastern portal of this road system in Biblical times was Jericho in the Jordan Valley. Its western route passed by Gezer on the Mediterranean coastal plain.
Gibeon lies about halfway along the route and is strategically located at the eastern head of a gradual descent to the coastal plain known as the Beth Horon pass. Throughout recorded history, invading armies have used the Beth Horan road to gain entrance to
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the hill country. Once an army arrived in the vicinity of Gibeon, it was easy for it to swing south and attack Jerusalem, or turn north to attack other cities such as Shechem, Bethel, or Shiloh.1
The military significance of the cross-plateau road and the Beth Horon pass cannot be understated. Authors Herzog and Gichon, both former Israeli intelligence services officers and seasoned military professionals, describe the Beth Horon pass as “one of the main ascents to the central mountain plateau. As a main artery of war, it is known to us from the wars of Joshua onwards, down to the Six Day War [1967 AD]” (1997: 121). Aharoni makes a much stronger observation.
The “way to Beth-horon” is not only the northernmost but also the most important strategic road and is the only one mentioned by name in the Bible (1 Sam. 13.18; Heb.). Unlike the more southerly routes which generally ascend via streambeds, this road climbs up the steep “ascent of Bethhoron” and thence to Gibeon and Jerusalem on the central ridge. This was its advantage from the standpoint of security and usefulness for commerce; its most obvious weak point was the “ascent of Beth-horon” (Josh. 10.10; Heb.), also called “the descent of Beth-horon”, depending upon one’s direction…Beth-horon was therefore a key point in the ascent to the hill country of Judah and Ephraim and was fortified at least by Solomon’s time (1 Kings 9.17; 2 Chron 8.5). This fort did not prevent Pharaoh Shishak from going up to the hill country on his way from Gezer and Aijalon towards Gibeon (Aharoni 1979: 59).
As noted above, Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak was at Gibeon during his invasion of Judah in the fifth year of the reign of Solomon’s son, King Rehoboam (1 Kgs 15:25). On a wall of the temple of Amun at Karnak is recorded the cities he sacked, and Gibeon is among them. This is the earliest known extra-Biblical reference to Gibeon.
There is at least one other extra-Biblical account that gives
Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com
Foundation of the Roman road that ran through the Beth Horon ridge. These cuts in the bedrock on the hill’s incline were filled with a layer of beaten chalk and then covered with other durable materials to make the road surface smooth.
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D.G. Hansen
Three of the 63 rock-cut, bottle-shaped cellars found at Gibeon. They were used to store wine, the city’s primary industrial product.
support to the military importance of the Beth Horon road and Gibeon’s location. Josephus, the late first-century AD Jewish historian, described the time the Roman governor of Syria, Cestius, moved a large Roman army into the region in order to put down a Jewish rebellion (ca. 66 BC). After marauding through the northern part of the country, Cestius camped at Gibeon before attempting to assault Jerusalem. The Jewish defenders of Jerusalem were able to repel the Roman army which withdrew, demoralized, to Gibeon. Cestius then tried to march the army to Caesarea down the descent of Beth-Horon with disastrous results. Josephus described the Roman debacle this way:
Now the Jews did not so much press upon them [the Romans] when they were in large open places; but when they were penned up in their descent through narrow passages…In which circumstances, as the footmen knew not how to defend themselves, so the danger pressed the horsemen still more, for they were so pelted, that they could not march along the road in their ranks, and the ascents were so high that the cavalry were not able to march against the enemy; the precipices also, and valleys into which they frequently fell, and tumbled down, were such on each side of them, that there was neither place for their flight, nor any contrivance could be thought of for their defense…Indeed these things were come to such a pass, that the Jews had almost taken Cestius’ entire army prisoners, had not the night come on (Wars 2.19. 8 [547-50]: 632).
In 1799, while marching north along the Palestinian coast from Egypt to Lebanon, French General Napoleon Bonaparte was asked if he would conquer Jerusalem by way of the Beth Horon ascent during the invasion. He is reputed to have cited Cestius’ misadventure on the dangerous track as reason for not even attempting such a quest.
Identification and Archaeological Exploration
El Jib was tentatively identified as Biblical Gibeon as early as the 13th century AD by the Arab geographer, Yakut (Schoville 1982: 462), in 1666 by F. F. von Troilo, and again in 1738 by R. Pococke(Pritchard 1993: 511). American explorer Edward Robinson (1838) subsequently made a forceful case for the site being Gibeon due to its similarity to the geographical determinates in the Bible and by postulating that the modern Arabic name, el-Jib, could be a corruption of Gibeon’s name (Hallote 1997: 403).
Minor archaeological explorations were carried out at el-Jib in 1889 and 1950, then major excavations from 1956 through 1962 under the direction of James B. Pritchard of the University of Pennsylvania. During his six seasons of excavations Pritchard established that Gibeon’s periods of occupation dated from Middle Bronze I (ca. 2200–2000 BC).2 Settlement began in the Middle Bronze II (ca. 2000–1550 BC) when a small colony was established at the top of the hill. Pottery from the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1550–1200 BC), the period of the Israelite Conquest,
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©2006/Dr. James C. Martin. All Rights Reserved.
Rock-cut cistern at Gibeon that stored rainwater. Stairs provided access to the bottom of the cistern.
was found in adjacent tombs, but little else to indicate that the site had physical defenses at this time.3
The excavations revealed that the city was fortified in the early Iron Age (ca. 1200–1000 BC) with a massive wall 10 to 11 ft (3.0 to 3.4 m) wide. This was the period of the United Kingdom—Kings Saul, David and Solomon. Gibeon reached the zenith of its prosperity during Iron Age IIC (ca. 700–586 BC), the time of the divided kingdoms. The city’s wealth was derived from its prodigious production of wine (Pritchard 1993: 513).
Pritchard’s evidence for understanding Gibeon’s prosperous wine industry came from the discovery of 63 bottle-shaped, rock-cut cellars designed for the storage of wine. Pritchard concluded that the cellars held wine in individual pottery jars, each with a capacity of 9.5 gal (36 l). These cellars kept the wine at a constant 68°F(20°C). He further estimated that the 63 cellars with their jars could have held a total of 25,100 gal (95,000 l) of wine—certainly more than the inhabitants of the city could reasonably consume. During his seasons of excavation Pritchard found 31 Iron Age jar handles inscribed in ancient Hebrew script with the name Gibeon (gb‘n). The stamped handles on large wine storage jars identified where the wine had been manufactured and, therefore, confirmed Gibeon’s identity (Pritchard 1993: 512).
Among the most interesting and well-known of Pritchard’s finds were three water systems used at various times in Gibeon’s history. The first was a large cistern, 37 ft (11.3 m) in diameter and 35 ft (10.7 m) deep. It was carved from solid rock around the tenth century BC and used for the storage of rainwater. In order to increase the city’s water supply, the Gibeonites next dug a stepped, sloping tunnel under the massive city walls constructed during the Iron Age. This tunnel descended from inside the city to a spring at the base of the hill outside the walls. To increase the volume of water they bored a horizontal feeder channel back into the hill. Apparently realizing that the feeder channel was under the cistern quarried years before, they then dug a stepped tunnel from the bottom of the existing cistern 45 ft (14 m) down to the water table that was well over 80 ft (24 m) below street level (Cole 1980: 25).
The Biblical Background: Gibeon and Joshua
The Gibeonites’ first appearance in the Bible is quite inauspicious. Joshua 9 records that the elders from Gibeon learned of the
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D.G. Hansen
Entrance to the ancient water tunnel inside the city wall. It went under the wall to a spring at the base of the hill.
Israelite successes, especially at Jericho and Ai, and developed a ruse to avoid combat with the invaders (9:3–4). Wearing old clothes, old shoes and carrying old sacks with dry and moldy food, the delegation from Gibeon presented themselves to the elders of Israel as “coming from a distant country” and requested a treaty of peace (9:4–6). This unusual plot was very cunning because the Gibeonites were Hivites4 living in the land which was to be occupied by Israel. Interestingly, they did not mention events, such as the destruction of Jericho and Ai, when they met the Israelites. Rather, the Gibeonites only talked about the Israelites flight from Egypt and their contacts with nations east of the Jordan Valley.
It should be understood that the Israelites were permitted to make peace with cities “at a distance,” e.g., east of the Jordan River (Dt 20:10–15). In contrast, the Israelites were specifically instructed that they were not to make treaties, or show mercy, to the seven nations (one of which was the Hivites) occupying the Promised Land, or “nations nearby” (Dt 7:1–2; 20:15). Thus, it appears that the Gibeonites intended to avoid destruction by deceiving the Israelites into believing they were from a “distant” land.
Believing the Gibeonites’ story, and without consulting God, Joshua and Israel’s leaders concluded a treaty of peace and sealed it with an oath (9:15). Afterward, the Israelites made two startling discoveries: first, Gibeon was part of a four-town coalition of Hivites, one of seven nations God had directed the Israelites to destroy and with whom they were not to make a treaty (Dt 7:1–2); second, Gibeon and its three sister towns (Beeroth, Kiriath Jearim, Kephirah) were only three days away from their camp at Gilgal—not in a “distant country” as the Gibeonites had alleged (9:17).
Since an oath had been given in the name of the Lord, the Israelites determined the treaty had to be honored (Dt 6:13; Mt 5:33). As a consequence for their deception the Gibeonites would be “woodcutters and water carriers for the community and for the altar of the LORD at the place the LORD would choose” (Jos 9:19–27).
At this point our Western minds should wonder why God allowed the Gibeonites to live. It is here we learn one of the lessons to be derived from this account: an oath, given in the name of the Lord, must be respected even if the reason for giving the oath is faulty. God expected the people to keep the oath, once made, to Gibeon and He reiterated the point later to King David. After suffering a three-year famine in the land, David asked the Lord, “why”? In response, God reminded David that Saul had broken God’s oath of protection of the Gibeonites: “It is on account of Saul and his blood-stained house; it is because he[Saul]put the Gibeonites to death” (2 Sm 21:1). As Francis Schaeffer points out in his commentary on Joshua, “an oath made in the name of the God of holiness is to be kept with holy hands” (1975: 148).
I believe an important aspect of this story is that it reflects how God honors those who believe and commit their lives to Him. To understand this point, we need to do a careful analysis of the context for an understanding of the Gibeonites’ behavior. When asked by Joshua why they presented themselves as they did, they answered,
Your servants were clearly told how the LORD your God had commanded his servant Moses to give you the whole land and to wipe out all its inhabitants from before you. So we feared for our lives because of you, and that is why we did this (Jos 9:24).
In other words, the Gibeonites had heard about God, understood what He had done, and believed God’s commandment to Moses that they, as a nation (Hivites) in the land promised to the Israelites, were to be destroyed (Dt 7:2; Jos 9:9). For their own protection they desired to become allies with Israel and, in the process, accept Israel’s God.
Peace and calm were short-lived, however. Soon, five Amorite kings learned about the agreement. Recognizing the difficulty posed by this pro-Israelite town at such a militarily important location, and that they might be the next victims of the Israelite juggernaut, the five kings covenanted to retake Gibeon. A quick survey of the topography at Gibeon shows that the town rests on a limestone hill and is encircled by a wide valley. This valley
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was perfect for assembling an army and blockading the town (Jos 10:1–5).
To date, no archaeological evidence has been unearthed to indicate Gibeon was fortified at the time of the Conquest. Therefore, the Gibeonites were very vulnerable to an Amorite attack. In response to the assembling Amorite coalition, the Gibeonites appealed to Joshua. Not hesitating, Joshua marched his army overnight 15 mi (24 km) from Gilgal to Gibeon, climbing more than 3, 200 ft (975 m) in elevation in the process. The next morning Joshua surprised the Amorite camps. The Amorite soldiers fled west down the descent of Beth Horon (Jos 10:6–10). Joshua, aided by two miracles (an unusual period of prolonged daylight[or darkness]that enabled him to pursue the fleeing armies and a unusually severe hailstorm that killed many Amorite soldiers), was able to capture and kill the Amorite kings and fully rout their armies (Jos 10:11–14).5
There are other elements to the story of Joshua’s meeting with the Gibeonites that should be highlighted. For example, even though Joshua and his leaders did not consult God about their ill-chosen oath of protection, it is important to note that because the Gibeonites surrendered to the Israelites, Joshua did not have to fight for this important road intersection or critical highway that led to the coastal plain. Instead, God gave it to the Israelites without combat! Granted, the Amorite coalition of five kings attempted to besiege Gibeon and Joshua had to come to its rescue. But, God subsequently answered Joshua’s request for assistance and, in the end, gave the five kings and their armies into Joshua’s hands so that the Israelites did not have their terms.
©2006/Dr. James C. Martin, All Rights Reserved.
Sunrise at Gibeon. The silhouette of the ancient city can be seen on the hill to the left of the valley over which the sun is rising. It reminds us of Joshua’s battle and his desire for the “sun to stand still over Gibeon.”
D. G. Hansen
Huge rock slabs were used to cover the ceiling and then conceal Gibeon’s water to fight the Amorite coalition on tunnel.
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Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com
Kiriath Jearim, one of the four towns that made up the Hivite coalition that surrendered to Joshua. It was at this town that the Ark of the Covenant rested until David brought it to Jerusalem.
And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose (Rom 8:28).
Gibeon’s Unique Role in Other Bible Accounts
The Bible makes it clear that Gibeon’s strategic location within the tribal allocation of Benjamin, and on the Benjamin plateau at the head of the Beth-Horon descent, gave it military importance well beyond its small size. The region around Gibeon also played a role in the politics of the Old Testament. Lying between the rebellious northern Joseph tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, and the southern tribe of Judah, it was a neutral assembly point desired by both northern and southern leaders. This critical strategic location is confirmed by a prophecy of Moses in Deuteronomy 32:11. Years before the land was divided and Benjamin awarded this territory, Moses foretold that Benjamin would be between “His shoulders,” that is, God would put the tribe between Biblically significant tribes. Little did anyone know that among the towns that would be in the territory allotted to Benjamin would be a people that would throw themselves on God’s mercy upon learning of His greatness, or how that city would experience special favor throughout the rest of the Bible.
Gibeon would be the site of a unique military meeting later in the Bible. Following Saul’s death, a falling-out developed over who would be the new leader of Israel—David or Saul’s son, Ish-Bosheth. David’s army, under the command of Joab, met the army of Saul’s son, under the leadership of Abner, at Gibeon’s cistern identified as the “pool of Gibeon” in the Bible(2 Sm 2:13). This is undoubtedly the same cistern Pritchard unearthed almost 3, 000 years later.
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Abner and Joab, the two commanders, agreed to a duel between representatives of the armies. The Biblical account succinctly reports what happened next:
So they stood up and were counted off—12 men for Benjamin and Ish-Bosheth son of Saul, and 12 for David. Then each man grabbed his opponent by the head and thrust his dagger into his opponent’s side, and they fell down together. So that place in Gibeon was called Helkath Hazzurim (“Field of Swords”—author’s translation; 2 Sm 2:15-16).
Yigael Yadin, a retired Israeli army general and well-respected archaeologist, writes the following in explanation of the brief Biblical account:
Grasping the head of one’s adversary with one hand and stabbing his side by a short sword with the other was one of the accepted tactics in such encounters, as we see clearly in the relief of about this period on the orthostat from Tell Halaf (Yadin 1963: 267).
The contest between champions had ended in a draw and the two armies resorted to more traditional means of fighting. The Bible does not describe the details of the ensuing battle, but only reports that Abner and his army were defeated and fled. In his flight from the battlefield, Abner killed Joab’s brother, Asahel (2 Sm 2:17–23). Later, during a period of peace, Joab would callously murder Abner in revenge for his brother’s death. But this was not the only murder Joab committed while a soldier under David. There was a cold-blooded murder of another of David’s officers, Amasa, also at Gibeon (2 Sm 20:8–12). In spite of all of Joab’s other indiscretions, it was this murder at Gibeon that caused King David, on his deathbed, to direct Solomon to have Joab executed (1 Kgs 2:5). On assuming the throne, Solomon had Joab assassinated, even though Joab had sought refuge at the tabernacle and altar at Gibeon. Gibeon continued throughout the Bible to be a place where God’s promises, justice and mercy were on parade (1 Kgs 2:28–35).
ABR file photo
Relief of Hittite warriors in a hand-to-hand duel from Tel Halaf, Syria (tenth century BC).
Gibeon and God
Gibeon was a place where God uniquely showed His imprint, and its Hivite citizens—as woodcutters and water carriers for the altar of the Lord and the community—became a distinctive example of God’s mercy. For example, as mentioned above, when Joshua divided the land the city went to the apportionment of Benjamin and subsequently it became an Aaronic city, one of the 48 priestly cities (Jos 21:17).
Approximately 400 years later, the tabernacle Moses had constructed in the desert was located at Gibeon, along with the altar (1 Chr 16:39, 21:29; 2 Chr 1:3, 13). When David’s son, Solomon, gained the throne he made burnt offerings at Gibeon, and it was also there that God appeared to him in a dream and Solomon requested, and was granted, wisdom from God and also received promises of God’s great blessing on him-(1 Kgs 3:5–10). The Bible also mentions at least one prophet from Gibeon, who was soundly denounced by Jeremiah for lying to the people (Jer 28:1).
God apparently also dealt kindly with the three other Hivite towns. As mentioned previously, Gibeon had three sister towns, one of which was Kiriath Jearim. In the later days of the Judges a serious error resulted and the Ark of the Covenant was captured by the Philistines during the second battle at Aphek (1 Sm 4:2–10). The victorious Philistines placed the Ark in several of their cities with disastrous results. In desperation, they returned the Ark to the Israelites (1 Sm 5–6). Once the Ark was back in Israel’s hands it was sent to Kiriath Jearim, Gibeon’s Hivite sister city, where it was placed in the home of Abinadab and cared for by his son, Eleazar, until King David moved it to Jerusalem (1 Sm 7). Like Gibeon, Kiriath Jearim is also noted for having produced a prophet who was a contemporary of Jeremiah (Jer 26:20).6
Not only did God bless the Hivite coalition after their pronouncement that they believed in God, it seems they continued faithfully to serve as part of the Temple workforce. Witness of this is that these four Hivite cities were listed in the
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Book of Nehemiah as being among those to which the Israelites returned from Babylonian captivity. It is interesting to note that Nehemiah reports 95 people from Gibeon returned (Neh 7:25) and rebuilt a portion of the wall at Jerusalem (Neh 3:7). Furthermore, a total of 743 men returned from the other three Hivite cities, Kiriath Jearim, Kephirah and Beeroth (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29).
Summary
Twenty-first century AD Western readers often fail to realize that the manner in which God dealt with the citizens of Gibeon and Kiriath Jearim reveals His plan of salvation through relationships with real people. The Gibeonites, Gentiles (Hivites) who had not had the privilege of experiencing God’s miracles, were allowed to live and remain in the Promised Land even though God had directed that all those in the land were to be destroyed (Dt 20:17). They believed in God because they had heard about His greatness. When the Gibeonites publicly demonstrated their belief by their actions, strange as they may seem to us, the God of Israel used that admission and rescued and protected them. They, in turn, blessed God with subsequent faithful service. The continuing presence of God at Gibeon and Kiriath Jearim, and God’s protection of the towns, reveals the majesty of how God does things, not at all as we would. Reduced to a personal level, it should make us appreciate how God’s mercy is for all mankind, regardless of our station or how lost we think we may be.
Centuries ago the prophet Isaiah, probably while scratching his head in wonder, captured the irony of God’s miraculous ways by citing the example of Gibeon. He wrote:
The LORD…will rouse himself as in the Valley of Gibeon— to do his work, his strange work, and perform his task, his alien task (Is 28:21).
God later told Isaiah, “my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways” (Is 55:8). Yes, Gibeon is classic evidence that rescuing fallen man is His work; and His ways and thoughts are certainly not ours.
Bibliography
Aharoni, Yohanan
1979 The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Westminster.
Baker, David W.
1992 Hivites. P. 234 in The Anchor Bible Dictionary 3, ed. David N. Freedman. New York: Doubleday.
Cole, Dan
1980 How Water Tunnels Worked. Biblical Archaeology Review 6.2: 8–29.
Fields, Wilbur
2003 “We are Standing on ‘Holy Ground’” at Kiriath Jearim. Bible and Spade 16: 62–63.
Hallote, Rachel S.
1997 Gibeon. Pp. 403–404 in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East 2, ed. Eric M. Meyers. New York: Oxford University.
Hansen, David G.
2000 The Military Significance of the Land of Benjamin. Bible and Spade 13:3–8.
2003 Large Cities that Have Walls Up to the Sky. Bible and Spade 16:78–88.
2005 Shechem: Its Archaeological and Contextual Significance. Bible and Spade 18:33–43.
Herzog, Chaim, and Gichon, Mordechai
1997 Battles of the Bible, 2nd rev. ed. Mechanicsburg PA: Stackpole.
Josephus, Flavius
1987 The War of the Jews. Pp. 543–772 in The Works of Josephus, new updated Edition, trans. by William Whiston. Peabody MA: Hendrickson.
Martin, James C.; Hansen, David G.; and Hansen, Carolyn R.
2004 Exploring Bible Times. Amarillo TX: Bible World Seminars.
Maunder, E. Walter
1979 Beth-Horon, The Battle of. Pp. 469–71 in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia 1, ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans.
Pritchard, James B.
1993 Gibeon. Pp. 511–14 in The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 2, ed. Ephraim Stern. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Schaeffer, Francis A.
1975 Joshua and the Flow of Biblical History. Downers Grove IL: Inter Varsity.
Schoville, Keith N.
1982 Gibeon. Pp. 462–63 in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia 2, ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans.
Stern, Ephraim
1993 The Historical-Archaeological Periods. P. 1529 in The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Wood, Bryant G.
2003 Joshua’s “Long Day” and Mesopotamian Celestial Omen Texts. Bible and Spade 17: 28–31.
Yadin, Yigael
1963 The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands in the Light of Archaeological Study. New York: McGraw-Hill.