Bryant G. Wood
During Israel’s earliest days as a nation, Shiloh was the most important city in the country. Joshua established it as a religious and civic center shortly after the Conquest in about 1400 B.C. and it retained that status until it was destroyed by the Philistines around 1050 B.C. Soon after, in about 1000 B.C., David set up his capital at Jerusalem, the site that has been Israel’s “Holy City” ever since. But Shiloh played an important role in the early years of the young nation of Israel and so, in view of the renewed archaeological activity at the site, we would like to briefly survey the history of the city.
Shiloh is located some 18½ miles north of Jerusalem in the territory of Ephraim, on the main north-south road through the central hill country. Why this particular site was chosen by Joshua for his administrative center we are not told. According to the archaeological evidence, the site was deserted at the time Joshua took it over. That, plus the fact that it is centrally located, may be reason enough for Joshua’s decision. Although Shiloh was strategically located as far as civil and religious activities were concerned, from a military standpoint the choice was a poor one. The site is situated on a low hill, surrounded by several higher hills. This, no doubt, was a contributing factor to Shiloh’s defeat at the hands of the Philistines.
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Shiloh in the Days of Joshua
After the Israelites had wrested control of the land from the Canaanite overlords, Joshua’s first administrative act was to erect the Tabernacle at Shiloh, thereby establishing it as the religious center of the fledgling confederacy (Joshua 18:1). An altar for offerings and sacrifices was constructed in front of the tabernacle (Joshua 22:29), and the Ark of the Covenant was housed inside (1 Samuel 3:3, 4:3). Thereafter, yearly pilgrimages were made to Shiloh by the people of Israel for worship and sacrifice (Judges 21:19; 1 Samuel 1:3, 21; 2:19).
Additional administrative acts were carried out by Joshua from his center at Shiloh. He completed the division of the land among the tribes (Joshua 18:2–19:51), established cities of refuge for those guilty of manslaughter (Joshua 20), assigned cities to the priestly tribe of Levi (Joshua 21), and released the fighting men of the Reubenites, Gadites and half tribe of Manasseh to their inheritance in Transjordan (Joshua 22:1–9).
The release of the fighting men of the Reubenites, Gadites and half tribe of Manasseh led to the first of a number of intertribal conflicts. On the way to their new homeland, they stopped at the bank of the Jordan River and erected an altar (Joshua 22:10). The other tribes, thinking that the Reubenites, Gadites and Manassehites had erected the altar in order to offer sacrifices in competition with the altar at Shiloh, were greatly disturbed. They gathered their forces at Shiloh and prepared to go against them in war (Joshua 22:12). But bloodshed was averted and peace restored when the Reubenites, Gadites and Manassehites explained that they had erected the altar merely as a memorial to remind them of the bond that existed between the tribes on both sides of the Jordan River in their common worship of the Lord God (Joshua 22:21–34).
Shiloh in the Book of Judges
Shiloh continued as the religious capital of Israel throughout the period of the Judges. We have reference to the “House of God” at Shiloh in Judges 18:31; 20:18, 26; 21:2; the Ark of the Covenant in Judges 20:27; and the yearly feast at Shiloh in Judges 21:19. The only event described in detail in the Book of Judges which involves Shiloh is that of the war between the united tribes and the tribe of Benjamin.
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Area C where a series of rooms from the time of Eli the priest have been uncovered.
Hostilities against Benjamin were precipitated when the Benjaminites failed to turn over the men of Gibeah responsible for the death of the Levite’s concubine (Judges 19, 20:1–13). As a result, the tribes turned on Benjamin in repraisal. Prior to each of three engagements with the Benjaminites, the united tribes went up to the House of God at Shiloh to seek God’s guidance. Here, we have an insight into the administration of the Tabernacle, for we are told that Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, stood before the Ark of the Covenant to inquire of the Lord whether or not the Israelite tribes should go against the Benjaminites in battle (Judges 20:14–28). Even in these early days in the period of the Judges, a professional staff was maintained at the Tabernacle. Finally, in the third engagement, the tribes were successful in defeating the Benjaminites, burning their cities and killing them all, save 600 men who found refuge in the wilderness (Judges 20:29–48).
Because the tribes had sworn not to give their daughters to the men of Benjamin, the 600 survivors faced the prospect of tribal extinction. The other tribes felt badly about this and wished to do
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something to provide wives for the Benjaminites (Judges 21:1–2). Their solution was to kill all the males and married women of Jabesh-Gilead and take the unmarried women for the Benjaminites, as punishment to Jabesh-Gilead for not joining in the war against Benjamin. The women were brought to Shiloh and there given to the men of Benjamin (Judges 21:3–14). But there were not enough to go around, since only 400 women had been captured at Jabesh-Gilead. In order to make up the difference, the elders instructed the Benjaminites to capture wives from among the young women of Shiloh when they came out to dance during the yearly festival (Judges 21:14–23). And so, between the women of Jabesh-Gilead and those of Shiloh, wives were provided for the men of Benjamin and the tribe survived.
Shiloh in the Time of Eli the Priest
The exact nature of the House of God at Shiloh has been a subject of some debate among scholars. Was it a tabernacle-tent or a temple building? Originally, Joshua erected the Tabernacle there (Joshua 18:1). But later, in the period of the Judges, the structure is referred to as the “House of God,” (Judges 18:31; 20:18, 26; 21:2; 1 Samuel 1:24; 3:15), a term that is later used for the Solomonic temple in Jerusalem. But it should be born in mind that an Israelite “house” or “home” in the period of the Judges was a tent. It was not until the end of the period of Judges, according to the archaeological evidence, that the Israelites began constructing houses of stone and mud brick. During the days of Eli and young Samuel, there are references to solid structural components of the edifice: it had a doorpost (1 Samuel 1:9) and doors (1 Samuel 3:15). Most confusing of all, is the fact that it is referred to as a “temple” in 1 Samuel 1:9 and 3:3. We must finally conclude, however, that the structure at Shiloh remained a tabernacle-tent throughout its long history. This conclusion is based on two facts: (1) it is specifically referred to as a tabernacle still in the days of Eli in 1 Samuel 2:22 and Psalm 78:60, and (2) in Solomon’s prayer of dedication after the Jerusalem temple was completed, he stated that God had said to David, “Since the day that I brought forth My people Israel out of Egypt, I chose no city out of all the tribes of Israel to build a house, that My name might be therein” (1 Kings 8:16). From this latter statement, it would seem that Israel’s first
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Area D where the earliest Israelite remains were found on top of a destroyed Middle Bronze Age Wall.
temple building was the one constructed by Solomon in Jerusalem.
The best known Bible story concerning Shiloh is the story of young Samuel told in 1 Samuel 1–4. Samuel’s mother and father were accustomed to coming to Shiloh for the yearly festival (1 Samuel 1:3–7, 21). At this time, Eli was the officiating priest, assisted by his sons Hophni and Phinehas (1 Samuel 1:3). Samuel’s mother Hannah had born no children. Then, on one of her annual pilgrimages, she prayed to the Lord for a son, vowing that if He would give her a son, she would give him back to the Lord for a lifetime of service. Before the next pilgrimage, Hannah gave birth to Samuel. When he was weaned, she took him to Shiloh to be brought up in the tabernacle and to eventually serve the Lord there (1 Samuel 1:24–2:11; 3:1, 19–21).
While Samuel was a young man at Shiloh, the Israelites were defeated by the Philistines at Ebenezer. Eli’s sons Hophni and Phinehas were killed in the battle and the Ark of the Covenant was captured (1 Samuel 4:1–11). The news of this tragedy brought about the death of Eli (1 Samuel 4:12–18). Although we are not given the details, circumstantial evidence indicates that the
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Philistines attacked and destroyed Shiloh at this time. There are indirect references to this destruction in Jeremiah and Psalms:
Is this house [the Jerusalem temple], which is called by My name, become a den of robbers in your eyes? Behold, even I have seen it, saith the Lord. But go ye now unto My place which was in Shiloh, where I set My name at the first, and see what I did to it for the wickedness of My people Israel. And now, because ye have done all these works, saith the Lord, and I spake unto you, rising up early and speaking, but ye heard not; and I called you, but ye answered not; therefore will I do unto this house, which is called by My name, wherein ye trust, and unto the place which I gave to you and to your fathers, as I have done to Shiloh. And I will cast you out of My sight, as I have cast out all your brethren, even the whole seed of Ephraim (Jeremiah 7:11–15).
Then will I make this house [the Jerusalem temple] like’ Shiloh, and will make this city a curse to all the nations of the earth (Jeremiah 26:6).
For they provoked Him to anger with their high places, and moved Him to jealousy with their graven images. When God heard this. He was wroth, and greatly abhorred Israel: so that He forsook the tabernacle of Shiloh, the tent which He placed among men; and delivered His strength into captivity, and His glory unto the enemy’s hand (Psalm 78:58–61).
Significantly, when the Ark was returned by the Philistines, it was not brought to Shiloh, but to Beth-shemesh (1 Samuel 6). From Beth-shemesh, the Ark was taken to Kirjath-jearim where it remained for 20 years (1 Samuel 6:19–7:2). Eventually, the Ark was placed in the tabernacle which David erected in Jerusalem (2 Samuel 6:1–17). Also, the first mention of Samuel following Eli’s death has him living in Ramah and ministering in Bethel, Gilgal and Mizpeh (1 Samuel 7:16–17). Following the Philistine victory at Ebenezer and the death of Eli, Shiloh is no longer mentioned in Scripture as an important religious center in Israel.
Shiloh in the Kingdom Period and Beyond
Shiloh is mentioned only briefly in the kingdom period. A prophet named Ahijah came from there (1 Kings 11:29, 12:15, 14:1–16). People were living in Shiloh at the time of the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in 587 B.C. (Jeremiah 41:5). In the Christian period, Shiloh was remembered as a holy site. Two churches of the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. with mosaic floors, have been found at the foot of the mound to the southeast.
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Collared-rim store jars from the time of Eli the priest found in one of the rooms of Area C.
Excavations at Shiloh
During the years 1926, 1929, 1932 and 1963 a Danish expedition excavated the site of Shiloh. They found remains from the Middle Bronze II period (ca. 2000-1550 B.C.), the Late Bronze II period (ca. 1400-1200 B.C.), the Iron Age (ca. 1200-600 B.C.), and later periods. The reports from the excavation have created a bit of a controversy concerning one important find. A thick ash layer was found which at first was dated to the Iron I period and associated with the Philistine destruction of Shiloh in ca. 1050 B.C. The final excavation report published in 1969, however, dated the destruction to the Iron II period and associated it with the Assyrian invasion of 722 B.C., over 300 years later.
In order to clarify some of the questions remaining from the Danish work, Bar-Ilan University in Tel Aviv began excavations at the site in 1981, under the direction of Israel Finkelstein. Three areas were chosen for excavation, C, D, and E, all on the slopes of the tell. In Area C, where the Danish found the controversial destruction layer, the excavators found a series of rooms laid out in
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a uniform manner, in which a large number of storage jars were found. The buildings had been destroyed by a strong fire, evidenced by ash on the floors and mud bricks baked by the heat. Based on the pottery found in this level, the archaeologists date the destruction to the Iron I period and associate it with the Philistine invasion in the days of Eli in ca. 1050 B.C. Remains from this same period were
Closeup of the corner of a room in Area C showing an ash layer from the Philistine destruction of 1050 B.C.
also found in the other two areas excavated attesting to the large size of the city at this time. With regard to the possible remains of a tabernacle or temple, chances are that none will be found. The summit of the mound is almost completely denuded, with bedrock being exposed over large areas. This is due partly to natural erosion and partly to artificial leveling down to bedrock by the Roman and Byzantine builders.
Based on their work so far, the Bar-Ilan team has concluded that Shiloh reached the height of its prosperity during the time of Eli, as the Bible indicates. As work is continued at Shiloh, more evidence will be uncovered to further illuminate the history of Israel’s first holy city.
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