Exegetical and Hermeneutical Commentary of Jeremiah 7:18
The children gather wood, and the fathers kindle the fire, and the women knead [their] dough, to make cakes to the queen of heaven, and to pour out drink offerings unto other gods, that they may provoke me to anger.
18. Both sexes and all ages unite in the public dishonouring of God’s name by shameless idolatries.
cakes ] The Hebrew word is of Assyrio-Babylonian origin, and occurs elsewhere only in Jer 44:19, where see further. The cakes were either shaped, or stamped, to represent the “queen of heaven,” probably to be identified, not with the moon, but with the planet Venus, the Ishtar of Babylonian worship (Co.). The cult was thence derived, and appears to have been introduced in Manasseh’s reign. “The description points to its prevalence among the poorer classes, who have to collect firewood and do all the work themselves.” Pe. The Mass., by a different vocalisation of the word for “queen,” apparently to avoid this sense, gives work (meaning, however, host, in accordance with the Rabbinic interpretation of “work” in Gen 2:1 f.) of heaven; and so LXX here, whereas in Jer 44:17 etc. they render rightly “queen.”
Fuente: The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges
Children … fathers … women – All members of the family take part in this idolatry.
Cakes – Probably very similar to those offered at Athens to Artemis.
To the queen of heaven – A Persian and Assyrian deity, who was supposed to symbolize a quality possessed by moonlight of giving to nature its receptive power, as the sun represented its quickening power. The moon thus became generally the symbol of female productiveness, and was worshipped as such at Babylon. Disgraceful usages to which every woman was obliged once to submit formed part of her worship.
Fuente: Albert Barnes’ Notes on the Bible
Jer 7:18
The children gather wood.
What can children do for God?
I. God is setting up a kingdom in this world. A very glorious and gracious kingdom.
1. Righteousness. Teaches us to do justice.
2. Peace–to love and pursue it.
3. Joy. God makes all happy who come into His kingdom.
II. God expects us all to work to set up this kingdom. Christ came to set it up; ministers preach and labour for it; missionaries go to heathen; all Gods people aid.
III. Children can do something to set up this kingdom.
1. You can pray; that God would make you willing subjects of this kingdom.
2. You can talk; speak to others about Jesus, pardon, God, heaven.
3. You can work; give to missionary society, etc.
IV. Children are always happy when trying to set up this kingdom. Why? Because make others happy. Angels are happy, because employed making others happy. God is happy, for He blesses every one. And, when we act like God, we ourselves are happy.
V. God will never forget the labours of little children for Him. When children wanted to come to Jesus, He noticed their disposition, and said, Never prevent a child from coming to Me; then took in arms and blessed. When they sang in temple He noticed their song, and said, Hearest thou what these say? God loves,everything done by children, because it is a proof of their obedience and love. (J. Sherman)
Childrens service
Queen of Heaven, i.e., Ashtaroth, or the Moon. The Israelites fell into this idolatry in the time of the Judges. Solomon was carried away by it. Josiah suppressed it. We may learn a useful lesson from these young idolaters.
I. They wished to be useful in religion.
II. They did what they could.
III. What they did was of service. What can you do? For example, in–
1. Money.
2. Word.
3. Effort.
4. Prayer.
IV. God does not despise childrens work. This fact is one which should be seriously pondered by children, parents, teachers. (Lay Preacher.)
Christians contrasted with heathens
It is said that Matthew Wilks, one of the founders of the London Missionary Society, chose this text when he preached the anniversary sermon; and in those days when trite and commonplace remarks from the pulpit were considered orthodox, and anything that was a little fresh and novel was looked upon with suspicion, every eye in the large assembly expressed astonishment at the preachers selection. He had not proceeded far, however, when the feeling of astonishment gave way to pure delight, when all seemed convinced that the text, though uncommon, was by no means inappropriate. I have not seen the sermon; I only know that he dealt with it in the following manner. He said, I will contrast your objects with those of the worshippers of the queen of heaven. I will compare your ardour with theirs. I will muster your agents. And it was this part of the subject, in which he referred to the agents, namely, men, women, and children, which gave rise to the system of auxiliary institutions which now pervade the whole country, and combine in its support young and old, rich and poor. (Eccentric Preachers.)
To make cakes to the queen of heaven.
On making cakes
(A talk with Children):–The people who lived in Jerusalem at this time, alas! worshipped the sun, and called it Baal, also the moon, and called it Ashtoreth,–just as our ancestors did at one time in this country, calling the day upon which they worshipped the sun Sunday, and the day upon which they worshipped the moon Monday. In Jerusalem, at the time referred to in our text, the people used to offer cakes to the moon. These cakes were always made round to resemble the moon. This offering was considered to be a very important one, and all wanted to have a share in making the cakes and presenting them. Now the first thing that had to be done was to get plenty of firewood. You cannot make a cake without fire, and you cannot get fire without fuel. Thus I think I can hear a Jewish mother say, Now, my children, I want you to get some good firewood for tomorrow–wood that will burn brightly; I am going to make some cakes for the queen of heaven, and–who knows?–perhaps there may be a few tit-bits left! Off the children go. Thats just the work they like; they can stoop easily, or jump over the hedge or fence, and tear their clothes without having much scolding, as they are gathering wood for their mother. Little Hannah gathers her apron full, and Dan or Benjamin as much as he can carry in his arms, and they return home full of glee. They have done their part. But the following morning the fire had to be kindled. It required strong arms to kindle a fire by rubbing two pieces of wood vigorously together. The fathers could do that best; for they had muscular arms, and they gladly did their part. Then there was need of clean and gentle hands to knead the dough, and there were none who could do that as well as the mothers, aunts, and the elder sisters. It was their turn now, and the children would look earnestly on and wonder whether the dough would go far enough to make the necessary number of cakes for the queen of heaven, or the moon, and one or two over. They little knew that the mother or sister had put in an extra handful of meal for that purpose. Then there was the baking and the consumption of the odd cake or two by the little wood gatherers. But beyond all this, there was a great pleasure reserved for them all–the privilege of presenting to the moon the cakes in the making of which they had all had a part, and which were as round and as perfect as a womans hand could make them. Children have their part to do still. Often, as in this case, the work begins with children. They cannot do much; they cannot kindle a fire, or make a cake or a loaf; but they can gather wood, supply the fuel, and others will kindle the fire and provide an offering fit for the altar of God. You cannot as yet, at least, go forth to distant lands as missionaries and Zenana workers, and take the bread of life–not as a gift to God, but as a gift from God–to the heathen; but you can enable others who are older than you to do all this. You can contribute your pence to the missionary society, etc. (D. Davies.)
Fuente: Biblical Illustrator Edited by Joseph S. Exell
Verse 18. The children gather wood] Here is a description of a whole family gathered together, and acting unitedly in idolatrous worship.
1. The children go and collect wood, and bring it to the place of sacrifice.
2. The fathers lay it in order, and kindle a fire.
3. The mother and her maids knead dough, make their batch, and out of it form cakes, and bake them for the honour of the queen of heaven; most probably the moon, though perhaps not exclusive of the sun and planets, generally called the host of heaven.
Family worship is a most amiable and becoming thing when performed according to truth. What a pity that so few families show such zeal for the worship of God as those apostate Israelites did for that of their idols!
Fuente: Adam Clarke’s Commentary and Critical Notes on the Bible
Here God shows how busily they are employed from the youngest to the oldest, and how industrious for their idolatry, Jer 44:1-7; see Mat 24:38; every one in the family doth somewhat towards it.
The children gather wood, or sticks; for the word is plural, and so used Num 15:32,33; an employment, if we understand small sticks, proper for children; if greater wood, suitable to youth, who excel in strength, and may be understood by children and young ones.
The fathers kindle the fire; they heat the oven, hearth, or stone on which they were baked.
The women knead their dough, to make cakes; prepare all the materials of which to make cakes; probably they were of some particular shape, or had some peculiar impression of some of their gods stamped upon them, like the popish wafers, some say stamped with stars, as being offered up to the host of heaven, or with some peculiar star, Amo 5:26; Act 7:43.
To the queen of heaven; or, frame or workmanship of heaven: this is diversely interpreted; some take it for the sun, which is signified by a word of the feminine gender, Isa 24:23, and of a feminine use, Nah 3:17; some for the moon; as the sun was looked upon as king, so the moon as the queen of heaven, because of the largeness of her body in which she appears, and of the light she gives, but especially by reason of the government she exerciseth over inferior bodies; others, more probably, for the whole host of heaven, Jer 8:2; 19:13, and so the LXX, according to which probably for their sakes they received divers stamps and impressions: they that would see more may consult the English Annotations and the Synopsis.
To pour out drink-offerings, viz. wine and other strong drinks, Exo 29:40,41; Num 28:7. The devil is Gods ape, and taught idolaters to use the same rites and ceremonies that were used in Gods worship; therefore here these idolaters, in pouring their drinkofferings, which might seem to be blood, or at least blood mixed with them, See Poole “Psa 16:4“, imitated Gods drink-offerings, as they did his meat-offerings in their cakes, as in Le 2; by these they did furnish the table mentioned Isa 65:11, see there.
That they may provoke me to anger; noting rather the proper effects and consequences of their idolatries, than that they did propound to themselves such an end in doing it; but it seemed to be a kind of bidding open defiance to God, by which it appears they were all mad upon their idolatries; they were set upon it, as Davids heart was set upon the worship of God, Psa 16:8.
Fuente: English Annotations on the Holy Bible by Matthew Poole
18. children . . . fathers . . .womenNot merely isolated individuals practised idolatry; youngand old, men and women, and whole families, contributed their jointefforts to promote it. Oh, that there were the same zeal for theworship of God as there is for error (Jer 44:17;Jer 44:19; Jer 19:13)!
cakes . . . queen ofheavenCakes were made of honey, fine flour, c., in a roundflat shape to resemble the disc of the moon, to which theywere offered. Others read as Margin, “the frame ofheaven,” that is, the planets generally so the Septuaginthere; but elsewhere the Septuagint translates, “queen ofheaven.” The Phoelignicians called the moon Ashtoreth orAstarte: the wife of Baal or Moloch, the king ofheaven. The male and female pair of deities symbolized the generativepowers of nature; hence arose the introduction of prostitution in theworship. The Babylonians worshipped Ashtoreth as Mylitta, that is,generative. Our Monday, or Moon-day, indicates the formerprevalence of moon worship (see on Isa65:11).
that they may provokemeimplying design: in worshipping strange gods theyseemed as if purposely to provoke Jehovah.
Fuente: Jamieson, Fausset and Brown’s Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible
The children gather wood,…. In the fields, or out of the neighbouring forest; not little children, but young men, who were able to cut down trees, and bear and carry burdens of wood:
and the fathers kindle the fire; take the wood of their children, lay it in order, and put fire to it; which shows that they approved of what their children did, and that what they did was by their direction and order:
and the women knead their dough; so that every age and sex were employed in idolatrous service, which is here intended; the corruption was universal; and therefore the whole body was ripe for ruin; nor would the Lord be entreated for them: and all this preparation was,
to make cakes for the queen of heaven; the moon, as Abarbinel; which rules by night, as the sun is the king that rules by day; and which was much worshipped by the Heathens, whom the Jews imitated. Some render it,
to the work, or workmanship, of heavens; q that is, to the whole host of heaven, sun, moon, and stars, which were worshipped in the cities of Judah, and in the places round about Jerusalem, 2Ki 23:5. The Targum renders it,
“to the star of heaven;”
and Jarchi interprets it of some great star in the heaven, called the queen of heaven; and thinks that these cakes had the impress of a star upon them; see Am 5:26 where mention is made of “Chiun, your image, the star of your god”. The word “chiun” is akin to the word here translated cakes, and thought to be explained by a star; see also Ac 7:43 but it seems rather to be the moon, which is expressly called by Apuleius r the queen of heaven; and often by others Coelestis; and Urania by the Africans, as Tertullian s and Herodian t affirm; as also Beltis, by Abydenus u; and Baaltis, by Philo-Byblius, or Sanchoniatho w; which have the signification of “queen”; and these cakes might have the form of the moon upon them, and be made and offered in imitation of the shewbread:
and to pour out drink offerings unto other gods; not different from the queen of heaven, and the hosts thereof; for to her and them drink offerings were poured out, Jer 44:18 but other gods besides the one, only, living, and true God:
that they may provoke me to anger; not that this was their intention, but so it was eventually.
q “operi coelorum”, Piscator, Gataker, Cocceius “machinae coelorum”, Munster, Tigurine version; so Kimchi and Ben Melech. r Metamorph. l. 11. principio. s Apologet. c. 24. t Hist. l. 5. 1. 15. u Apud Euseb. Praepar. Evangel. l. 9. c. 41. p. 456. w Apud ib. l. 2. c. 10. p. 38.
Fuente: John Gill’s Exposition of the Entire Bible
The children, he says, gather wood He ascribes the collecting of wood to the young; for it was a more laborious work. As then that age excels in strength, they collected wood; and the fathers kindled the fire: the women, what did they do? They were busy with the meal. Thus no part was neglected. “What then is to be done? and what else can I do, but wholly to cut off a people so wicked?” Then he says, that they may make כונים, cunim, which is translated “cakes, “and this is the most common rendering. Some think that kindling is meant, deriving the word from כוה, cue, which means to kindle. But I prefer the opinion of those who derive the word from כון, cun, which is to prepare, as cakes are things prepared. I do not then doubt, but that cakes are meant here, as it appears also from other places. The second interpretation I regard as too refined. (201)
With regard to the word למלכת, lamelcath, many consider the letter א left out, and think that “works” are intended. In this case מ would be a servile: but others consider it a radical, and render the word, “Queen;” which appears to me probable; though I do not wholly reject what some hold that the workmanship of the heavens is here meant. Some understand the stars, others the sun, and others the moon: let every one enjoy his own opinion. However, I think, that if the workmanship of the heavens be meant, the whole celestial host is to be included, as the Scripture thus calls all the stars. But if “the Queen of the heavens” be adopted, then I am inclined to think that the moon is intended: and we know how much superstition has ever prevailed among most people as to the worship of the moon. Hence I approve of this meaning. Yet I readily admit that all the stars, not one only, may be here designated, and called the work or the workmanship of the heavens. And the Jews, we know, were very much given to this madness: for as the sun was considered by the Orientals as the supreme God, when the Jews became enamoured with this error, they also thought that some high and adorable divinity belonged to the sun: they turned also afterwards to the stars; and this absurdity is often referred to in the Law and also in the Prophets. (202)
It is then added, That they may pour forth libations to foreign gods, to provoke me to wrath When God complains of being provoked, it is the same as though he had said, that the Jews now openly carried on war with him, — “They sin not through ignorance, nor is it unknown to them how much they offend me by these profanations; but it is as it were their object and design to provoke me and to carry on war with me by these acts of impiety.”
(201) The ancient versions (the Arabic excepted) and the Targum render the word, cakes — placentas It is only found elsewhere in Jer 44:19. — Ed.
(202) The Septuagint render the words here, “the host of heaven,“ and in Jer 44:17 and 19, “the queen of heaven.” The Vulgate in the three places, renders them “the queen of heaven,“— the Targum, “ the star of heaven,“ — and the Syriac, “the army of heaven,“ in the two first places, but in the last, “the queen of heaven.” There are several MSS., in the three places, which insert the א, so as to make the word “work,“ or workmanship: but this change has evidently arisen from the Septuagint. But this word is never used to designate the work of the visible heavens: the word used in that case is מעשה. See Psa 8:3. Our version and the Vulgate are no doubt right. But what is intended by the queen of heaven is not the moon; for the word commonly used for the moon is always masculine, and the word generally used for the sun is commonly feminine. This may appear strange; but so it is. In South Wales the word for sun is always feminine, but in North Wales, masculine.
In Deu 4:19, the sun, the moon, and the stars, as constituting the host of heaven, are mentioned together: these the first, as including all the rest, seems to be intended. Instead of “queen,“ we should say in our language, “the king of the heavens.” We do not read that the Jews worshipped the moon; but the worship of the sun among them is specifically referred to and mentioned. See 2Kg 23:11; Eze 8:16. The Israelites adored the sun under the name of Baal, which was the Chemosh of the Moabites, and the Moloch of the Ammonites. — Ed.
Fuente: Calvin’s Complete Commentary
(18) The queen of heaven.The goddess thus described was a kind of Assyrian Artemis, identified with the moon, and connected with the symbolic worship of the reproductive powers of Nature. Its ritual probably resembled that of the Babylonian Aphrodite, Mylitta, the mother-goddess, in its impurities (Herod. i. 199; Bar. 6:43), and thus provoked the burning indignation of the prophet here and in Jer. 44:19; Jer. 44:25. The word rendered cakes, and found only in connection with this worship, was clearly a technical term, and probably of foreign origin. Cakes of a like kind, made of flour and honey, round like the full moon, and known, therefore, as selence or moons, were offered, like the Minchah or meat-offerings in the Mosaic ritual, the Neideh in the Egyptian worship of the goddess Neith, at Athens to Artemis, and in Sicily to Hecate (Theocr., Idylls, ii. 33). The worship of Ashtoreth (Milton speaks of her as Astarte, Queen of Heaven, with crescent horn ), though of kindred nature, was not identical with that of the Queen of Heaven, that name signifying a star, and being identified with the planet Venus. A various reading gives, as in the margin, the frame of heaven.
Fuente: Ellicott’s Commentary for English Readers (Old and New Testaments)
THEIR WORSHIP OF JEHOVAH HYPOCRITICAL, BEING JOINED WITH IDOLATRY, Jer 7:17-28.
18. Children fathers women All classes unite. The family in its organic unity does the work of irreligion. The very fountains of human life are poisoned, so that even the children are busied in these hellish rites.
Queen of heaven An Assyrian goddess representing the productive principle of nature, whose rites were ofttimes most unclean and infamous. (See also Jer 44:7.)
Fuente: Whedon’s Commentary on the Old and New Testaments
Jer 7:18. To the queen of heaven The queen of heaven was the moon; the same as Astarte or Ashtaroth. The prophet here describes the whole family as busied in preparing their sacrifices and superstitious rites to this idol. Houbigant renders the words other gods, very properly, by strange gods; and Jer 7:19. Do they aggrieve me, saith the Lord, and not themselves [rather], to the confusion of their own faces?
Fuente: Commentary on the Holy Bible by Thomas Coke
Jer 7:18 The children gather wood, and the fathers kindle the fire, and the women knead [their] dough, to make cakes to the queen of heaven, and to pour out drink offerings unto other gods, that they may provoke me to anger.
Ver 18. The children gather wood. ] a All sorts, sizes, and sexes are as busy as bees:
“ Sed turpis labor est ineptiarum. ”
Oh that we were so intent, with united forces, to the worship of the true God of heaven! Vae torpori nostro. Oh take heed of industrious folly! dispirit not yourselves in the pursuit of trifles, &c.
To make cakes.
To the queen of heaven,
“ Tot tibi sunt dotes, Virgo, quot sidera caelo, ”
a thousand twenty and two ways, according to the number of the known stars. The Jesuits commonly write at the end of their books, Laus Deo et beatae Virgini, Praise be given to God and to the blessed Virgin; but this is the badge of the beast. Let us say, Soli Deo gloria; Glory only to God, and yet not in the sense of that Persian ambassador, who, whensoever his business lay with Christians, was wont to have Soli Deo gloria very much in his mouth; but by soli he meant the sun, whom he honoured for his god. Why the women here, and Jer 44:19 , should be so busy in kneading cakes to the moon, these reasons are given: – (1.) Because the moon was a queen; (2.) Because the women at their labour were most beholden to the moon, who by her great moisture mollifies the pregnant, and makes the passage easy for their delivery. This custom of offering cakes to the moon, saith one, e our ancestors may seem not to have been ignorant of; to this day our women make cakes at such times, yea, the child is no sooner born but called cake bread. Add, that the Saxons did adore the moon, to whom they set a day apart, which to this day we call Monday. The same author f telleth us, that he who not long since conquered the Indies, persuaded the natives that he had complained of them to their moon, and that such a day the goddess should frown upon them; which was nothing else but an eclipse, which he had found out in the almanac.
a Distribuunt inter se munera.
b Scilicet et tenui popano corruptus Osiris. – Juven., Sat. vi.
c Haeres., 79.
d The superior dulia or veneration paid by Roman Catholics to the Virgin Mary.
e Greg. Posth., 202.
f Ibid., 132.
Fuente: John Trapp’s Complete Commentary (Old and New Testaments)
children = sons.
make: or, offer.
queen. Some codices, with two early printed editions, read “worship”, which is put by Figure of speech Metonymy (of Effect), for the goddess to whom the worship was offered. See Jer 19:13; Jer 44:19; and compare 2Ki 21:3, 2Ki 21:5; 2Ki 23:12, 2Ki 23:13.
Fuente: Companion Bible Notes, Appendices and Graphics
children: Jer 44:17-19, Jer 44:25, 1Co 10:22
queen of heaven: or, frame, or workmanship of heaven, Though several manuscripts and editions have melachath “workmanship,” instead of melecheth “queen” yet the latter reading seems the true one, as the LXX in the parallel place, and the Vulgate uniformly have “the queen of heaven;” by which there can be little doubt, is meant the Moon. Deu 4:19, Job 31:26-28
to pour: Jer 19:13, Jer 32:29, Deu 32:37, Deu 32:38, Psa 16:4, Isa 57:6, Isa 65:11, Eze 20:28
that they: Jer 25:7, Isa 3:8, Isa 65:3
Reciprocal: 2Ki 2:23 – little children 2Ki 23:19 – to provoke the Lord Job 30:8 – children Jer 17:2 – their children Jer 44:9 – the wickedness of your Jer 44:19 – we burned Eze 24:8 – it might Hos 2:8 – her corn
Fuente: The Treasury of Scripture Knowledge
Jer 7:18. All the members of the families participated in the abominable worship of idol gods, in the service of sacrifices it was necessary to have fire and that made it necessary also to obtain wood. This called for the services of the children who would not be abie for more responsible activity. The fathers were more developed In years and experience and so they could build the fire. In the service of altar performances both animals and vegetable objects were offered. The latter was In the form of cakes which brought forth the work of the women. Queen of heaven pertains to idolalry or the worship of the planets. It has special reference to the moon as (he feminine associate of the masculine sun. The planets were worshiped as deities by the heathen and God’s people took up the practice. Smith’s Bible Dictionary says the following on the subject:”Queen of heaven, Jer 7:18, Jer 44:17-19; Jer 44:25, is the moon, worshiped as Ashtaroth or Astarte, to whom the Hebrew women offered cakes in the streets of Jerusalem. Drink offering means the offering of something that could have been useful for drink. When it was so used It was either poured out on the ground before some idol or poured over the larger sacrifice on an altar, and it was done as a religious performance to the god. A motive for the idolatrous practice is Indicated by the words that they may provoke me to anger. The word provoke Is not in the original as a separate word but is taken from the same one as anger. The Hebrew word is kaac, which Strong defines, “A primitive root; to trouble; by implication to grieve, rage, be Indignant.” Moffatt renders the word as “spite,” and the context justifies the thought. The people thought they would “spite the Lord by their worship of idols.
Fuente: Combined Bible Commentary
7:18 The children gather wood, and the fathers kindle the fire, and the women knead dough, to make cakes to {i} the queen of heaven, and to pour out drink offerings to other gods, that they may provoke me to anger.
(i) That is, they sacrifice to the sun, moon and stars, which they called the queen of heaven, Jer 44:17, 2Ki 23:5 .
Fuente: Geneva Bible Notes
Whole families were involved in making offering cakes for the Queen of Heaven, a deity mentioned only by Jeremiah. They also poured out drink offerings to other gods to hurt, humiliate, and annoy the Lord.
The "Queen of Heaven" was most likely a title of the Assyrian-Babylonian goddess Astarte (or Ishtar; cf. Jer 44:17), though some scholars believe the name applied to several pagan goddesses. [Note: Craigie, pp. 123, mentioned the Canaanite goddesses Anat, Ashtaroth, and Shapash, all of whom the Canaanites associated with heaven. See also Keil, 1:160.] Worship of the Queen of Heaven had been popular in Judah during the reign of Manasseh (2 Kings 21; 2Ki 23:4-14), though it began earlier in Israel’s history (Amo 5:26). This "queen" was an astral deity that appealed particularly to women (cf. Jer 19:13; Jer 32:29; Zep 1:5). Her worship involved offering cakes made in the shape of the deity or the moon, or stamped with her image, and drink offerings (cf. Jer 44:19). Other symbols of this goddess were the planet Venus, a moon, and a star. This cult had evidently survived Josiah’s reforms, probably because people could worship Astarte in their homes. [Note: See also The New Bible Dictionary, 1962 ed., s.v. "Queen of Heaven," by D. J. Wiseman.] Worship of the Queen of Heaven and all other idols constituted a rejection of Yahweh’s sole sovereignty as Lord of Israel’s covenant.