Exegetical and Hermeneutical Commentary of Isaiah 44:12
The blacksmith with the tongs both worketh in the coals, and fashioneth it with hammers, and worketh it with the strength of his arms: yea, he is hungry, and his strength faileth: he drinketh no water, and is faint.
12, 13. This truth enforced by a description of the manufacture of the idols.
The smith ] lit. “the workman in iron,” as opposed to the “workman in wood” of the next verse. The text is corrupt at the beginning. R.V. has “the smith (maketh) an axe”; LXX. “the workman sharpeneth iron, worketh it with the adze &c.,” not perceiving that the verse speaks of the blacksmith’s labours. It is possible, no doubt, to take the word for “axe” (which is found again only in Jer 10:3), as meaning “cutting instrument,” for dividing the mass of iron on the anvil; but this is suggested by nothing in the verse; and moreover, the description is certainly not that of the manufacture of an implement, whether for the smith or the carpenter. The only feasible solution is to omit the “axe” altogether as a marginal gloss by some reader who fell into the same error as the LXX. translator. Render: The smith works with the coals.
fashioneth it (the iron core of the idol) with hammers ] cf. ch. Isa 41:7.
and worketh it with his strong arm ] R.V. Gesenius cites in illustration two lines of Vergil ( Georg. IV. 174 f.),
“Illi inter sese magna vi brachia tollunt
In numerum, versantque tenaci forcipe ferrum.”
yea, he is hungry ] The point is that the man who makes his own gods exhausts his strength in the process; contrast ch. Isa 40:31.
Fuente: The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges
The smith with the tongs – The prophet proceeds here to show the folly and absurdity of idolatry; and in order to this he goes into an extended statement Isa 44:12-19 of the manner in which idols were usually made. Lowth remarks, The sacred writers are generally large and eloquent on the subject of idolatry; they treat it with great severity, and set forth the absurdity of it in the strongest light. But this passage of Isaiah far exceeds anything that was ever written on the subject, in force of argument, energy of expression, and elegance of composition. One or two of the Apocryphal writers have attempted to imitate the prophet, but with very ill success (Wisd. 13:11-19; 15:7; etc.; Baruch 6) Horace, however, has given a description of the making of idols, which, for severity of satire, and pungency of sarcasm, has a strong resemblance to this description in Isaiah:
Olim truncus eram ficulnus, inutile lignum;
Cum faber, incertus scamnum faceretne Priapum
Maluit esse Deum.
Sat. I. viii. 1-3.
Lowth renders the phrase the smith with the tongs, The smith cutteth off a portion of iron. Noyes, The smith prepareth an axe The Septuagint, The carpenter sharpeneth ( ozune) iron ( sideron), that is, an axe. So also the Syriac. Gesenius renders it, The smith makes an axe. Many other renderings of the passage have been proposed. The idea in this verse is, I think, that the prophet describes the commencement of the process of making a graven image. For that purpose, he goes back even to the making of the instruments by which it is manufactured, and in this verse he describes the process of making an axe, with a view to the cutting down of the tree, and forming a god. That he does not here refer to the making of the idol itself is apparent from the fact that the process here described is that of working in iron; but idols were not made of iron, and that here described especially (Isa 44:11 ff) is one made of wood. The phrase used here, therefore, refers to the process of axe-making with a view to cutting down a tree to make a god; and the prophet describes the ardor and activity with which it is done, to show how much haste they were in to complete it. The literal translation of this phrase is, The workman ( charash, st. const. for charash) of iron (maketh) an axe.
Both worketh in the coals – And he works the piece of iron of which he is making an axe in the coals. He blows the coals in order to produce an intense heat (see Isa 54:16) – Behold, I have created the smith that bloweth the coals in the fire.
And fashioneth it with hammers – Forms the mass of iron into an axe. Axes were not cast, but made.
And worketh it with the strength of his arms – Or, he works it with his strong arms – referring to the fact that the arm of the smith, by constant usage, becomes exceedingly strong. A description remarkably similar to this occurs in Virgil when he is describing the Cyclops:
Illi inter sesc magna vi brachia tollunt
In numerum; versantque tenaci forcipe ferrum.
Georg. iv. 174, 175.
Heaved with vast strength their arms in order rise,
And blow to blow in measured chime replies;
While with firm tongs they turn the sparkling ore,
And Etnas caves with ponderous anvils roar.
Sotheby.
Yea, he is hungry – He exhausts himself by his hard labor. The idea is, that he is so anxious to have it done, so engaged, so diligent, that he does not even stop to take necessary refreshment.
And his strength faileth – He works until he is completely exhausted.
He drinketh no water – He does not intermit his work even long enough to take a draught of water, so hurried is he. While the iron is hot, he works with intense ardor, lest it should grow cool, and his work be retarded – a very graphic description of what all have seen in a blacksmiths shop. The Rev. John Williams states that when the South Sea islanders made an idol, they strictly abstained from food; and although they might be, and were sometimes, three days about the work, no water, and he believes no food, passed their lips all the time. This fact would convey a satisfactory elucidation of an allusion not otherwise easily explained (Pictorial Bible).
Fuente: Albert Barnes’ Notes on the Bible
Verse 12. The smith with the tongs, c. – “The smith cutteth off a portion of iron”] meatstsed, Participium Pihel of atsad, to cut still used in that sense in the Arabic. See Simonis Lex. Heb. The Septuagint and Syriac take the word in this form: but they render it sharpeneth the iron. See Castell. Lex. in voce.
The sacred writers are generally large and eloquent upon the subject of idolatry; they treat it with great severity, and set forth the absurdity of it in the strongest light. But this passage of Isaiah, Isa 44:12-20, far exceeds any thing that ever was written upon the subject, in force of argument, energy of expression, and elegance of composition. One or two of the apocryphal writers have attempted to imitate the prophet, but with very ill success; Wisd. 13:11-19; 15:7, c. Baruch vi., especially the latter, who, injudiciously dilating his matter, and introducing a number of minute circumstances, has very much weakened the force and effect of his invective. On the contrary a heathen author, in the ludicrous way, has, in a line or two, given idolatry one of the severest strokes it ever received: –
Olim truncus eram ficulnus, inutile lignum,
Cum faber incertus, scamnum faceretne Priapum,
Maluit esse Deum. Deus inde ego.
HORAT. Satyr, lib. 1. sat. viii.
“Formerly I was the stump of a fig tree, a useless log; when the carpenter, after hesitating whether to make me a god or a stool, at last determined to make me a god. Thus I became a god!”
From the tenth to the seventeenth verse, a most beautiful strain of irony is carried on against idolatry. And we may naturally think that every idolater, who either read or heard it, must have been for ever ashamed of his own devices. – L.
Fuente: Adam Clarke’s Commentary and Critical Notes on the Bible
Both worketh in the coals, and fashioneth it with hammers; first he makes the metal soft and pliable, by putting it among burning coals, and then he taketh it out, and beateth it into what form he pleaseth. It must be here noted, that some of these images were made of brass and iron, as others were of gold and silver, Dan 5:4.
He is hungry, and his strength faileth; he drinketh no water, and is faint: this is mentioned, either,
1. As an argument of the vanity of idols, which cannot relieve their poor workmen, when they are ready to faint away through hunger, and thirst, and weariness. Or,
2. As an evidence of great zeal and industry in carrying on this work, so that they forget or neglect to eat and drink when their necessities require it. This I prefer,
1. Because it suits best with the next foregoing clause, he worketh with the strength of his arms, i.e. fervently, and putting forth all his might in the work.
2. Because the prophet in this, and in the next following verses, is only describing the mechanical part, or the matter of images, and the art and labour of the workmen in making them; and afterwards proceeds to the theological consideration of the thing, and the confutation of these practices, as we shall see.
Fuente: English Annotations on the Holy Bible by Matthew Poole
12. tongsrather, “prepareth(to be supplied) an axe,” namely, with which to cut downthe tree designed as the material of the idol. The “smith”(Hebrew, “workman in iron”) here answers to the”carpenter” (Hebrew, “workman in wood”).”He worketh it (the axe, not the idol, which was wood,not metal) in the coals,” &c. The axe was wrought,not cast. The smith makes the axe for the carpenter.
hungry . . . drinketh nowaterso eager is he to expedite his work while the iron ishot. If the god were worth anything, it would not let him grow”faint” with hunger and thirst. WILLIAMS,the missionary, states that the South Sea islanders when they make anidol abstain from food and drink.
Fuente: Jamieson, Fausset and Brown’s Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible
The smith with the tongs,…. Or, “the worker of iron” c; the blacksmith, who had a concern in making of idols, for some were made of iron, Da 5:4, or in making plates to cover them, or nails to fasten them with, or instruments which the carpenter made use of in cutting down trees, and fitting the wood for an image; such as the axe or hatchet, or plane, and which some think is here meant, by the word translated “tongs”, but is rendered an “axe”, Jer 10:3 and is used for that, or an hatchet, or a plane, by the Misnic d writers; so the Targum renders it,
“the smith out of iron makes an axe or hatchet:”
“both worketh in the coals”; he puts his iron in the coals, and blows upon them, and so makes it soft and malleable, and then takes it out:
and fashioneth it with hammers: beats it with hammers upon the anvil, and puts it into what form he pleases:
and worketh it with the strength of his arms; uses his utmost strength to bring it into a form he is desirous of:
yea, he is hungry, and his strength faileth; he drinketh no water, and is faint; he works at it with all his might and main, is earnest at it, and is eagerly desirous of finishing his work; he works till he is hungry and thirsty, and for want of food is ready to faint and sink; and yet will not give himself time to eat and drink, being so intent upon his work: or the sense is, though he is hungry and thirsty, and faints for want of provisions, yet the god he is making, or has made, cannot supply him with any: this is said to expose the folly of idol making, and of idol worship.
c “faber ferri”, Pagninus, Montanus; “faber ferrarius”, V. L. Vitringa. d Misn. Sabbat, c. 12. sect. 1. Celim, c. 29. 6.
Fuente: John Gill’s Exposition of the Entire Bible
The prophet now conducts us into the workshops. “The iron-smith has a chisel, and works with red-hot coals, and shapes it with hammers, and works it with his powerful arm. He gets hungry thereby, and his strength fails; if he drink no water, he becomes exhausted. The carpenter draws the line, marks it with the pencil, carries it out with planes, and makes a drawing of it with the compass, and carries it out like the figure of a man, like the beauty of a man, which may dwell in the house.” The two words c harash barzel are connected together in the sense of faber ferrarius , as we may see from the expression c harash etsm (the carpenter, faber lignarius ), which follows in Isa 44:13. Charash is the construct of c harash (= c harrash ), as in Exo 28:11. The second kametz of this form of noun does indeed admit of contraction, but only to the extent of a full short vowel; consequently the construct of the plural is not , but (Isa 45:16, etc.). Hence Isa 44:12 describes how the smith constructs an idol of iron, Isa 44:13 how the carpenter makes one of wood. But the first clause, , is enigmatical. In any case, is a smith’s tool of some kind (from , related to ). And consequently Gesenius, Umbreit, and others, adopt the rendering, “the smith an axe, that does he work … ;” but the further account of the origin of an idol says nothing at all about this axe, which the smith supplies to the carpenter, that he may hew out an idol with it. Hitzig renders it, “The smith, a hatchet does he work, and forms it (viz., into an idol);” but what a roundabout way! first to make a hatchet and then make it into an idol, which would look very slim when made. Knobel translates it, “As for the cutting-smith, he works it;” but this guild of cutting-smiths certainly belongs to Utopia. The best way to render the sentence intelligible, would be to supply : “The smith has (uses) the m aatsad .” But in all probability a word has dropped out; and the Septuagint rendering, .. , shows that the original reading of the text was , and that got lost on account of its proximity to . The meaning therefore is, “The smith has sharpened, or sharpens ( c hidded , syn. shinnen ) the m aatsad ,” possibly the chisel, to cut the iron upon the anvil; and works with red-hot coals, making the iron red-hot by blowing the fire. The piece of iron which he cuts off is the future idol, and this he shapes with hammers ( the future of ). And what of the carpenter? He stretches the line upon the block of wood, to measure the length and breadth of the idol; he marks it upon the wood with red-stone ( sered , rubrica , used by carpenters), and works it with planes ( m aqtsuoth , a feminine form of , from , to cut off, pare off, plane; compare the Arabic mikta ), and with the compasses ( m e chugah , the tool used, lachug , i.e. for making a circle) he draws the outline of it, that is to say, in order that the different parts of the body may be in right proportion; and he constructs it in such a manner that it acquires the shape of a man, the beautiful appearance of a man, to be set up like a human inmate in either a temple or private house. The piel ( ), from which comes y e taarehu , is varied here (according to Isaiah’s custom; cf., Isa 29:7; Isa 26:5) with the poel , which is to be understood as denoting the more exact configuration. The preterites indicate the work for which both smith and carpenter have made their preparations; the futures, the work in which they are engaged.
Fuente: Keil & Delitzsch Commentary on the Old Testament
Vs. 12-20: PROPHETIC IRONY TURNED UPON IDOLS AND THOSE WHO TRUST IN THEM
1. Isaiah has already insisted that idols can do nothing because they ARE NOTHING but artistic blocks of metal or wood.
2. Here his argument reaches its climax in an outburst of derisive, prophetic laughter! (vs. 12-17).
a. With an irony that seems almost savage, he taunts idolators with the non-existence of their gods, Psa 115:4-8.
b. With burning satire, he paints the stupidity of anyone who would presume to make a god out of the same piece of wood that furnished fuel for cooking his dinner!
c. For a descendant of Abraham to trust such an idol was doubly stupid!
3. Isaiah views the God of Jacob as the God of history – who plans and executes the affairs of men and nations according to His own free and perfect will.
4. Israel must not presume that the calamity which has overtaken her (that is, her captivity) is anything but a necessary, and richly deserved, judgment upon her sin, (Isa 42:24-25; Isa 48:17-19); it is not an evidence of God’s helplessness, but has been HIS OWN DOING!
a. Israel has not understood because, having rejected knowledge, God has blinded her eyes and hardened her heart, (vs. 18).
b. She cannot comprehend her own folly, (vs. 19).
c. Thus, Isaiah pictures her as “feeding on ashes” -unconscious of a deceived heart, and that she holds a lie in her right hand, (vs. 20).
5. The people of God must ever trust Him to bring history to the goal for which He created the earth, called the Israelites into a relationship of covenant-fellowship with Himself, and commissioned them to be His witnesses to the ends of the earth!
6. God still has a glorious future for this people once they fully entrust the direction and keeping of their lives into His capable hands.
Fuente: Garner-Howes Baptist Commentary
12. The worker in iron. With good reason does the Apostle here draw up a long description, in order to shake off the stupidity and madness of superstitious people, if they can at all be awakened, or, at least, to prevent the Jews from indulging in similar folly who were surrounded on all sides by innumerable worshippers of false gods; for he gives a minute and homely enumeration, which makes it exceedingly evident that they are frantic and outrageous, he might otherwise have condemned this wickedness in a single word or in a few words; but this catalogue points out the fact, as it were, with the finger, and places it before our eyes, he details the tools and labors and industry and care of workmen, so as almost to bring it actually before us. Men who have their errors deeply rooted by nature in their hearts are more deeply affected in this manner than by simple doctrine; for they cannot be roused from their lethargy but by loud and continual cries. Every part must be delivered to them, and broken into small fragments, and even chewed and put into the mouth, as they do with infants, that they may receive the doctrine, which would otherwise appear to them strange and uncommon.
Even hungry. He describes the eagerness by which superstitious persons are impelled to fashion gods; for they burn with such ardor that they cannot observe any limit or measure. Their lust, like a gad-fly, drives them on, and causes them to rush forward with such fury that we may justly compare that zeal to the love of a harlot, as we have formerly said. They apply to it their whole force both of body and of mind. This is what he means by the arm of his strength; (179) as if he had said, “All the strength of their arms is applied to it; they work against their natural inclinations, and scarcely take as much as is necessary for the support of life; in a word, they spare no labor or expense to make the gods whom they have desired.
Although he describes the constancy of toil, by saying that they do not slacken their labor when they are hungry, but endure hunger and thirst rather than relinquish their work, (180) yet we may appropriately extend the observation to all the efforts of inconsiderate zeal. We see how the fervent devotion, as they call it, of unbelievers, is their own executioner; but the more laboriously they toil for their own destruction, the more base and shameful is our slothfulness, by which we defraud God of his lawful worship.
(179) “The strength of his arms.” — Eng. Ver.
(180) The lamented missionary, Mr. Williams, discovered in the Islands of the Pacific a superstitious practice, probably very ancient, which sheds light on this passage. During the manfacture of an idol, the workmen scrupulously abstain from food, and do not even drink water; which accounts for the painful exhaustion and intense thirst described by the Prophet Isaiah as brought on at an advanced stage of the operation. “Their strength faileth,” and “they are faint.” — Ed.
Fuente: Calvin’s Complete Commentary
(12) The smith with the tongs.We begin with the metal idol. Better, The smith uses a chisel. The work involves stooping over the charcoal furnace. The maker of the god is exhausted with his toil, and requires food and drink to sustain him.
Fuente: Ellicott’s Commentary for English Readers (Old and New Testaments)
12, 13. Notably, withering sarcasm is presented in these verses. Let the ridiculous farce come out in the translation following, that of Delitzsch: In the workshops, “The iron smith has a chisel, and works with redhot coals, and shapes it with hammer, and works it with his powerful arm. He gets hungry thereby, and his strength fails. If he drinks no water his strength fails. The carpenter draws the line, marks it with pencil, carries it out with the planes, makes a drawing of it with the compass, and carries it out like the figure of a man, like the beauty of a man, that it may dwell in the house.” Note the points: Great haste to have the idol made quickly. Some emergency. Hunger is neglected, and fainting occurs from thirst. Very eager to expedite the work while the iron is hot. Yet the god gives or allows no relief, except to hunger and thirst. Is such a god of any worth? Then the idol must be like a man a beautiful man and its divinity is on the same level.
Fuente: Whedon’s Commentary on the Old and New Testaments
Isa 44:12. The smith with the tongs, &c. From this verse to the 20th the folly of idolatry is set forth in the most lively colours, and the whole scheme of idol worshippers exposed in an elegant strain of refined irony. There is no need of any exposition. The prophet here describes the instruments necessary for the carpenter to form the image. The 14th verse may be rendered, He heweth him down cedars, and taketh the teil or the pine-tree, and the oak, which he reareth up for himself, &c. He planteth a pine, &c. Isa 44:18. They have not known, nor understood, because their eyes were so closed up, that, &c. Isa 44:19. Nor doth he at all reflect in mind; nor has he the consideration or the sense to say, &c. Isa 44:20. He feeds upon ashes; his deluded heart, &c. The meaning of the phrase, He feeds upon ashes, is, “He depends on a thing which has no power to help him; barren, dry, and lifeless:” Or possibly the expression may allude to the curse of the serpent, and be an oblique hint, that idolatry is the greatest degradation which the dignity of the human species can suffer: such a degradation as brings man to a level with the reptiles, the lowest and most abominable of brute creatures. See Vitringa.
Fuente: Commentary on the Holy Bible by Thomas Coke
Isa 44:12 The smith with the tongs both worketh in the coals, and fashioneth it with hammers, and worketh it with the strength of his arms: yea, he is hungry, and his strength faileth: he drinketh no water, and is faint.
Ver. 12. The smith with the tongs, &c. ] He lively setteth forth the weakness of the workmen, that thereby may be understood the weakness of the idols, since they cannot help in the least those that take such pains about them. All these things must be taken as spoken with utmost scorn and stomach.
And fashioneth it with hammers.
With the strength of his arms. NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: Isa 44:12-17
12The man shapes iron into a cutting tool and does his work over the coals, fashioning it with hammers and working it with his strong arm. He also gets hungry and his strength fails; he drinks no water and becomes weary. 13Another shapes wood, he extends a measuring line; he outlines it with red chalk. He works it with planes and outlines it with a compass, and makes it like the form of a man, like the beauty of man, so that it may sit in a house. 14Surely he cuts cedars for himself, and takes a cypress or an oak and raises it for himself among the trees of the forest. He plants a fir, and the rain makes it grow. 15Then it becomessomething for a man to burn, so he takes one of them and warms himself; he also makes a fire to bake bread. He also makes a god and worships it; he makes it a graven image and falls down before it. 16Half of it he burns in the fire; over this half he eats meat as he roasts a roast and is satisfied. He also warms himself and says, Aha! I am warm, I have seen the fire. 17But the rest of it he makes into a god, his graven image. He falls down before it and worships; he also prays to it and says, Deliver me, for you are my god.
Isa 44:14-20 This shows the folly of idolatry (cf. Jer 10:2-16).
1. plants a tree
2. cut it for
a. warmth
b. cooking food
c. making a god
3. falls down in worship before a helpless god, the remainder of a cut log. He asks the log to help him, save him!
4. the maker forgets all this preparation because he has deceived himself (Isa 44:20)
The smith with the tongs, &c. “The smith was more or less a sacred person, and the iron foundry was an annex of heathen temples. “Mounds of scorioe and iron slag are found near many heathen temples. Note the contrast exhibited (apparently on purpose) in 1Ki 6:7.
the Folly of Idolatry
Isa 44:12-20
We are here conducted to a metal idol factory, Isa 44:12. As we enter, we are forewarned that we shall find the workmen vain, and their delectable things unprofitable. With this caution, we watch the image being made beneath the heavy blows of the hammer, wielded by the swarthy smith. After a few hours of work he becomes tired and thirsty. But surely an idol can never impart perennial energy and help, if its manufacturer is so easily exhausted.
Next, we are led into a factory of wooden idols, Isa 44:13, where a carpenter is at work, drawing a pattern on a block of timber. The floor is littered with shavings, and the idol that is to receive worship and exercise authority is handled very unceremoniously. Lastly we follow an individual into the forest, where he saws part of a tree for firewood and the rest for his household effigy. What folly! These men are hungry for some object of worship, but they feed their hunger on ashes; and they cannot be made to realize that they are deceiving themselves. The true bread is Christ.
The smith: Isa 40:19, Isa 41:6, Isa 41:7, Isa 46:6, Isa 46:7, Exo 32:4, Exo 32:8, Jer 10:3-11
the tongs: or, an axe
he is: Hab 2:13
Reciprocal: Gen 21:15 – the water Psa 107:5 – General Pro 31:17 – strengtheneth Ecc 10:15 – labour Isa 29:8 – behold Jer 9:5 – weary Jer 10:4 – fasten Jer 14:22 – Are
Isa 44:12-17. The smith, &c. The sacred writers, says Bishop Lowth, are generally large and eloquent upon the subject of idolatry: they treat it with great severity, and set forth the absurdity of it in the strongest light. But this passage of Isaiah far exceeds any thing that ever was written upon the subject, in force of argument, energy of expression, and elegance of composition. One or two of the apocryphal writers have attempted to imitate the prophet, but with very ill success: Wis 13:11-19; Wis 15:7, &c.; Baruk, chap. 6.; especially the latter, who, injudiciously dilating his matter, and introducing a number of minute circumstances, has very much weakened the force and effect of his invective. On the contrary, a heathen author, in the ludicrous way, has, in a line or two, given idolatry one of the severest strokes it ever received:
Olim truncus eram ficulnus, inutile lignum;
Cum faber, incertus scamnum faceretne Priapum, Maluit esse Deum.
I was of old the trunk of a fig-tree, a useless block;
when the carpenter, uncertain whether to make a bench or a
Priapus, chose that I should be a god. Hor., lib. 1. sat. 8.
He maketh it after the figure of a man, &c. In the same comely shape and proportions which are in a living man; that it may remain in the house In the dwelling-house of him that made it. He heweth him down cedars and the oak Which afford the best and most durable timber; which he strengtheneth for himself He plants, and with care and diligence improves those trees, that he or his posterity may thence have materials for their images, and those things which belong to them. He maketh an image, and falleth down thereto Having related the practices of idolaters, he now discovers the vanity and folly of them, that they make their fire and their god of the same materials, distinguished only by the art of man, and roast their meat with the article which they worship.
44:12 The smith with the tongs both worketh in the coals, and fashioneth it with hammers, and worketh it with the strength of his arms: yea, he is {s} hungry, and his strength faileth: he drinketh no water, and is faint.
(s) He describes the raging affection of the idolaters, who forget their own necessities to set forth their devotion toward their idols.
The man who would make a god has to expend a great deal of effort on it. Some English translations give the impression that in this verse the blacksmith is fashioning a tool with which to make an idol, but the idol itself is really in view. Making an idol is a laborious and exhausting process. God, of course, did not grow weary making man; He made him with a word. Furthermore, because God made the Israelites, they did not need to grow weary (Isa 40:28-31). Because He carried them (Isa 45:20; Isa 46:3), they did not need to become hungry and thirsty (Isa 43:19-20).
Fuente: John Trapp’s Complete Commentary (Old and New Testaments)
Fuente: You Can Understand the Bible: Study Guide Commentary Series by Bob Utley
Fuente: Companion Bible Notes, Appendices and Graphics
Fuente: F.B. Meyer’s Through the Bible Commentary
Fuente: The Treasury of Scripture Knowledge
Fuente: Joseph Bensons Commentary on the Old and New Testaments
Fuente: Geneva Bible Notes
Fuente: Expository Notes of Dr. Constable (Old and New Testaments)