Ernest B. McGinnis
Introduction
The ancient Greek city of Delphi had a worldwide impact, as seen throughout the writings of the ancient historians and poets of the classical period. We find the influence of Delphi in the writings of the greats from Homer to Plato, and the power of the Delphic Oracle stretched from Asia to Rome and Egypt to Macedonia, with everything in between. In a sense, Delphi was the prototypical oracular city which was venerated by both the richest kings and the meekest farmers. Delphi penetrated the lives of those living in both the Greek and Roman Empires. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that this powerful influence is also seen in the writings of the New Testament authors, and probably played a key role in the life of one of Paul’s most problem-filled churches, Corinth.
The power of pagan religious thought was a formidable enemy for the early church. It had not only blinded men and women throughout the Roman Empire from what should have been clearly seen (Rom 1:20), but it also maintained such a powerful grasp on its former adherents that much of Paul’s follow-up ministry involved breaking the practice of syncretism in the church. For the Corinthians, a pagan worldview appears to have distorted their understanding of the very teachings of Paul, namely the use of spiritual sign gifts. This is no wonder, in light of the fact that this most influential religious city was only ca. 42 mi (68 km) northwest of Corinth, across the Corinthian Canal. The city of Delphi had a long and prosperous history, functioning first as the “naval of the earth,” the very seat of Gaia, mother earth and wife
Delphi’s three levels built upon Mt. Parnassos.
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Pythian Stadium at Delphi where the Pythian games were held every four years in honor of Apollo.
of Pondus, then later as the main temple of Apollo. Throughout both reigns of these pagan deities, Delphi was known as the place to receive powerful oracles which guided the lives and dominions of men from kings to farmers.
However, the connection between Delphi and Corinth was much deeper than mere close proximity. Corinth boasted major temples to the very gods worshipped in Delphi. Local officials were known to rule between the two cities, for example Gallio. They shared the love of games, as both hosted athletic celebrations—the Isthmian games in Corinth and the Pythian games in Delphi. As important as these connections were, it appears that there is one that was even more important to the Christian church—the influence Delphi had on the church at Corinth regarding the understanding of prophecy and tongues. If this assumption is correct, then Paul’s argument to the Corinthians goes much deeper than previously thought. The question we shall try to tackle here is, “Was Paul attempting to dislodge the embedded understanding of the Corinthian concept of prophecy and tongues which was so deeply influenced by Delphi, through the Pythian Priestesses, that it had twisted their understanding of what these gifts truly were and how they were to be practiced?” Over the course of this and several articles to follow, we shall seek to uncover the power Delphi held not only over the Greco-Roman pagan world, but also over the church in Corinth. In doing so, we shall explore ancient literary sources and archaeological clues, as well as the current geological studies being conducted in Delphi. These data have shed new light on our understanding of such classical authors as Plutarch, Pindar, Diodorus, Strabo and the Apostle Paul.
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The “naval of the earth” at Delphi.
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A Brief History of Delphi
Delphi is located on the slops of Mt. Parnassos overlooking the Valley of the Pleistos River in central Greece. The city boasts a long and interesting history, beginning with the uprising of the small coastal city of Krisa in the third millennium BC. Krisa was destroyed in the Dorian invasion and when rebuilt, no earlier than the late Bronze Age, it was placed atop the Korykian Cave. But why was Delphi built on Mt. Parnassos, with its center being a chasm in the ground? Furthermore, why was the mother earth goddess Gaia worshipped so fervently within Delphi? The answer lies with a herd of goats.
According to tradition, a flock of goats was grazing on the lush hillside of Mt. Parnassos when they came upon a chasm in the ground. One by one, each goat was overcome with ecstasy while shrieking with unearthly sounds. When the curious shepherds approached the chasm they too succumbed to the ecstatic state. Some traditions claim that the shepherd who first found the chasm was named Coretas and connect him to the city of Gortyn on the Island of Crete. This seems to be an effort to confirm the legend that the Delphic cult was of Cretan origin(Plutarch, De Def Oracle xivi). This tradition also seems to explain the importance of the goat within oracular ceremonies as well as the depiction of goats on the coins. Delphic coins struck in the years 480–460 BC depict a ram’s head on one side and a goat’s head with two dolphins on the other. As it is written in Homer’s Hymn to the Pythian Apollo, Apollo in the form of a Dolphin lured Cretan sailors to the shores of Krisa. For their obedience he named them his first priests. As an act of worship, these sailors named the city “Delphini,” the Greek word for Dolphin, the sacred animal of the famed Knossos palace located on Crete (2: 388–523).
Why was this site and city chosen as the “naval of the earth”
Theater of Dionysus at Delphi.
Apollo at Delphi depicted inside a bowl.
and the oracular shrine to Gaia? When one surveys the impressive natural surrounding of the site of Delphi, the awe-inspiring Mt. Parnassos and the lush forested valley of the Pleistos River, it becomes clear why the mother earth goddess was venerated there. In addition, the breathing chasm in the ground suggested to the ancient Greeks that it was there that Gaia was speaking in the vapors rising from the bowels of the earth.
Delphi served as the center for the worship of Gaia from its earliest days, as numerous ancient sources suggest. This is confirmed by inscriptions and artifacts excavated by the Germans and French in the late 19th and early-to-mid 20th centuries.2 Delphi would later surrender its worship and temple of Gaia to Apollo and Dionysus, along with minor temples dedicated to such gods as Athena and possibly Poseidon. However, it was Apollo who usurped the throne from Gaia and whose name will forever be linked with Delphi.
Apollo
Apollo, son of Zeus and his mistress Leto in Greek mythology, was one of the 12 Olympian Gods and the twin brother of Artemis, goddess of the hunt. He was born on the sacred Greek island of Delos, a short boat ride from modern Mykonos. Apollo was known as the god of arts (poetry and music), orderly conduct and temperance, youth and beauty, and finally prophecy. It was the latter that proved to be his main function at Delphi. Apollo was widely worshipped throughout Greece and boasted temples in its major cities. It was in Delphi, however, where Apollo wielded the greatest influence.
Exactly when Apollo became more popular than Gaia at Delphi is difficult to know. We do know that Apollo’s coming to Delphi occurred relatively early in the city’s history. Most scholars agree that Apollo arrived prior to the movement of the tribes across the Aegean Sea and probably even prior to the southern part of Greece being fully Hellenized. Homer notes Apollo’s presence in Delphi (Hymn to Delian Apollo 2: 354–56). Traces of Minoan settlement at Delphi connect Apollo in Delphi to the Minoans of Crete. The transition from Gaia to Apollo at Delphi varies depending upon the ancient source. Aeschylus records that Themis, daughter of Gaia, took possession of the oracle from her mother. She then handed it over as a gift to her sister Phoebe, the Titaness, who in turn gave Delphi and her name to Apollo as a birthday gift. Hence, Apollo’s nickname “Phoebus” (Aeschylus 1926: 2.4-8).
From ca. 300 BC another story of Apollo’s succession at Delphi gained popularity in Greek storytelling. Euripides, who was most likely borrowing from Homer, gave a much more intriguing account of Apollo’s gaining predominance at Delphi. He wrote that Apollo battled the great Pytho or dragon, “which had protected the shrine of Gaia.” Upon slaying the beast with 100 arrows, Apollo released Themis of her position and took possession of the oracle. To account for the ecstatic manner in which Apollo’s oracles where given, Gaia is said to have avenged her daughter by causing the prophetesses to appear in a dream state.
Apart from the mythical accounts of Apollo’s succession at Delphi, it appears more logical that, as the region was becoming increasingly Hellenized, the Hellenistic gods replaced the gods of the earlier days. In order to change with the times, the prophetesses and priests of Delphi simply adopted the new gods and goddesses. Such an act would have avoided turmoil and the possible loss of the honored positions they held at Delphi. Apollo was then revered at Delphi throughout the remainder of the life of the city. A massive temple was erected atop the crevice in the earth from which the magical vapors flowed and sacrifices were offered constantly to Apollo. From the point of Apollo’s succession onward Apollo and Delphi were forever linked. Although Delphi boasted temples to other deities, Apollo was its star and it was his voice which held knowledge of the future.
Dionysus
The connection between Dionysus and Apollo is one of interest. Both Apollo and Dionysus shared the same paternal origin in almighty Zeus. Despite this commonality, the two gods could not have been more distinct. Apollo ruled over the realm of order, temperance, youth and beauty. Dionysus on the other hand was the god of drunkenness, wine, parties and orgies, and is often depicted as an overweight drunkard keeping company with sexually charged creatures, such as
nymphs, Sileni…men with legs and tails of horses…Satyrs…demons by nature, who were half men and half goat,
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Maenads…who were women with the personification of the orgiastic spirit of nature, [who] during the Dionysian orgies they were overcome by mania (Souli 1995: 52).
Dionysus’ true origin seems to point to Phrygia, “where his name was Diounsis, and also to Thrace, a region whose population and language were related to the Phrygian people” (Souli 1995: 60). The worship of Dionysus seems to have spread from the Balkan districts into Macedonia by around the seventh century BC (Dempsey 1972: 33). Dionysus’ cults were mainly populated with women who worshipped him with drunken parties and sexual acts which would last sometimes for days on end. The practices included,
frantic dancing, loud cries, and the rending in pieces and devouring of certain animals, especially bulls and goats (Rose 1959: 61).
The purpose of such ecstatic wild worship revolved around the desire for the cult member to become at one with Dionysus, to be possessed with his spirit and thus to allow the god to speak through the worshipper (Rose 1959: 61). Thus, Apollo and Dionysus were not only immensely different in their attributes and realms of power, but the ways in which they were worshipped also lacked agreement in nearly every way.
When exactly the cult of Dionysus came to Delphi and set up shop is unknown. Homer’s poems regarding Apollo and Delphi make no mention of the wine god, and Strabo and Diodorus share in the silence. It appears that Dionysus’ presence at Delphi gradually grew in importance until finally the two gods were depicted as co-owners of Delphi. Several artifacts show the two as peaceful cohabiters of Delphi.3 These two distinct gods were worshipped at Delphi separately, depending upon the season of the year. Dionysus was worshipped for three months in the winter, while Apollo ruled the oracular city during spring, summer and autumn.
The very fact that Dionysus was given a third of the year to rule in Delphi points to his warm welcome by the priests and priestesses of Delphi. No doubt his presence brought warmth and celebration in the coldest and darkest months of the year. Moreover, the presence of Dionysus perhaps influenced the manner in which oracles were received and given. This may explain why the prophetesses of Apollo, the god of order and temperance, delivered their oracles in such an ecstatic and maniacal manner.
Although it appears that Dionysus’ cult was indeed welcomed by the rulers of Delphi, it may have entered Delphi in a similar fashion as the cult of Apollo. Perhaps the Dionysus cult had such a large following, as Apollo’s had previously, that fear began to arise that they would in fact overtake Delphi. Rather than chance losing Delphi to the adherents of a rival god, a share of the sacred site may have been offered to the half-brother of Apollo in a spirit of compromise and temperance. Regardless of how Dionysus came to Delphi, he had a strong presence there, including a magnificent theater erected in his honor. The theater sat upon the hillside overlooking the great temple to Apollo where the oracles were given. With the prominence of Dionysus’ temple, it could even be said that perhaps Dionysus had come to be held in higher regard than Apollo.
It is more likely, however, that the theater to Dionysus was situated looking down upon Apollo’s temple, not as a gesture of Dionysus’ greater stance in Delphi, but instead as a constant reminder to the theater crowd of whose city they were in. One cannot escape the grand view from all seats of this theater of Apollo’s remarkable marble temple. Some of history’s greatest men traveled across seas and mountains to visit this temple. Delphi’s greatest attraction, however, remained the temple of Apollo. Although Dionysus no doubt held a deep influence on the city, he remained a second-rate god to Apollo.
Conclusion
The fabled history of Delphi would not only tantalize the Greco-Roman pagans through the centuries, it would also play a pivotal role in the Pauline church at Corinth. It wreaked havoc on the interpretation and practice of the spiritual gifts as originally taught by Paul or possibly Apollos (1 Cor 3:6). As we shall see in the next article, although gods and goddesses were worshipped in Delphi, it was the Pythian Priestesses who stole the show and would prove to be a frustrating and long-lasting influence upon Corinthian Christianity. The methods they used in giving voice to their gods would not only influence the likes of Hercules, Alexander the Great and Nero, but also the Corinthians being admonished by Paul in 1 Corinthians 12–14.
Bibliography
Aeschylus
1926 Aeschylus: Eumenides. Trans. Herbert W. Smyth. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge MA: Harvard University.
Dempsey, Thomas
1972 The Delphic Oracle: Its Early History, Influence and Fall. New York: B. Bloom. Reprint of 1918 ed. Oxford, England: B.H. Blackwell.
Homer
2003 Homeric Hymns. Trans. Jules Cashford. New York: Penguin.
Plutarch
1936 Moralia 5. Trans. Frank C. Babbitt. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge MA: Harvard University.
Rose, Herbert J.
1959 Religion in Greece and Rome. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Souli, Sofia
1995 Greek Mythology. Nisiza Karela, Koropi, Atticki Greece: Michael Toubis.
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