Clifford A. Wilson
Garry Stone
Year Found,
Date. Language/
Name/Location
Excavator/Discoverer
Script
Contents/Biblical Significance
Rosetta Stone, near village of Rosetta, Egypt
1799, Captain Boussard of Napoleon’s Army. Translated by J.F. Champollion in 1822.
Approx. 200 B.C.; Greek, Demotic, Hieroglyphys (latter two are Egyptian).
Decree by priests of Memphis honoring Ptolemy V, Epiphanes. Same decree in three languages, Greek at bottom. Champollion produced Hieroglyphic grammar and dictionary — door opened to deciphering other inscriptions.
Sheshonk Inscription, Karnak (Thebes) temple of Amun, Egypt
1825, then 1896. Flinders Petrie recognized significance in 1896.
920 B.C. (approx.) Egyptian Hieroglyphys.
Sheshonk’s victories over various towns of Israel. Confirms record of this campaign in 1 Kings 14:25–26.
Tayior Prism, Nineveh, Iraq
1830, J.E. Taylor.
685 B.C., Akkadian (Neo-Assyrian).
691 B.C. Annals of Sennacherib. Includes siege of Jerusalem, Isaiah 37: Hezekiah shut up “like a bird in a cage”.
Behistun Rock, Zagros Mts., Iran
1835, Henry Rawlinson.
521-485 B.C.; Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian.
Tri-lingual inscription of Darius of Persia. Opened door to translation of cuneiform (Akkadian) writing.
Sargon’s Palace, Khorsabad, near Nineveh, Iraq
1843–1844, Paul Emile Botta (Victor Place, 1851–1855).
722-705 B.C., Akkadian (Neo-Assyrian).
Included many bas-reliefs and annals. He claimed to have captured Samaria. Includes campaign by his commander (Tartan) referred to in Isaiah 20:1.
BSP 12:1-2 (Winter-Spring 1983) p. 49
Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser, Calah (Ancient Nimrud), Iraq
1846, Austin Henry Layard.
850 B.C., Akkadian (Neo-Assyrian).
Military victories of Shalmaneser III of Assyria. Depicts Jehu of Israel (or emissary) paying tribute — an event not recorded in the Bible.
Sennacherib’s Palace, Nineveh, Iraq
1849–1851, Austin Henry Layard (Hormuzd Rassam 1853–1877).
Approx. 700 B.C., Akkadian (Neo-Assyrian).
Over 70 rooms lined with scuiptured slabs of military accomplishments, including 13 showing the siege of Lachish. Confirms record of 2 Kings 18:14 that Hezekiah sent tribute to Lachish.
Ashurbanipal’s Palace, Nineveh, Iraq
1850–54, Layard and Rassam.
Ashurbanipal ruled 668-626 B.C., Akkadian (Neo-Assyrian) and earlier.
Collected clay tablets for his library, including many ancient records. Copy of earlier creation and flood records (see below).
Enuma Elish (seven tablets), Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, Iraq
c. 1850 (Chaldean account of Genesis’ Geo. Smith, 1876), Austin Henry Layard.
Seventh century B.C. (now other copies dating to 18th century B.C.), Akkadian (Neo-Assyrian, other fragments in Old Babylonian).
Seven tablets with polytheistic account of creation — copy of older Akkadian record. Grotesque in various ways. Similarities, but also great differences to Genesis Chapter 1. Bible record is dramatically superior with God transcending creation. Man was created to be His friend, not His menial servant.
Gilgamesh Epic (12 tablets). Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, Iraq
1853 (‘Chaldean account of the Deluge’ Geo. Smith 1872/73).
Seventh century B.C. (other fragments as early as 2300 B.C.), Akkadian (Neo-Assyrian).
12 tablets of seventh century B.C., being copies of Akkadian records. Tablet 11 refers to flood and subsequent events. Similarities to biblical Flood record, but many more dissimilarities. The Bible record is greatly superior and historically acceptable.
BSP 12:1-2 (Winter-Spring 1983) p. 50
The City of Susa, in steppe country east of Tigris, Iran
1851, Wm. K. Loftus.
Sixth Century B.C., various, from semi-pictographic early Elamite, and, later, others.
Evidence of very early occupation and records of happenings through centuries. This was biblical city of ‘Shushan’. Light on Persian city of Esther and Nehemiah.
Moabite Stone, Dibon in Moab, Jordan
1868, Rev. F. Klein.
840 B.C., Moabite.
Mesha, King of Moab, rebelled against Israel. Confirms and supplements 2 Kings 1:1 and 3:5.
Cyrus Cylinder, Babylon, Iraq
1879–1882, Rassam.
539/7 B.C., Cuneiform.
Records his conquest and subsequent freeing of captured peoples. Confirms general pattern of ‘return’ — see 2 Chronicles 36 and Ezra 1.
Siloam Inscription, Jerusalem
1880, young boy, then A.H. Sayce translated.
701 B.C., Hebrew.
Details concerning the construction of Hezekiah’s Tunnel. Confirms 2 Kings 20:20, and shows what cubit length is.
Nabonidus Chronicle, Babylon, Iraq
1882, T.G. Pinches.
555-539 B.C., Cuneiform.
Annals of King Nabonidus who was absent in Teima while his son, Belshazzar was in Akkad (Babylon). Nabonidus neglected New Year religious festivals. Other tablets show Belshazzar was ‘king’ in his father’s absence. See Daniel 5:7, 29 (Daniel ‘third in the kingdom’).
Amarna Letters (300 tablets). Tell el Amarna, Egypt
1887, Egyptian woman (Flinders Petrie and others excavated).
14th century B.C., Akkadian (Neo-Assyrian).
Correspondence between Akhenaten and kings of city-states in Palestine. Reveals the political situation at about the time of the conquest.
BSP 12:1-2 (Winter-Spring 1983) p. 51
Elephantine Papyri, Elephantine Island, Aswan, Egypt
1893, C.E. Wilbour (student) bought from Arab woman.
Fifth century B.C., Aramaic.
Family archives and correspondence of Jewish colony at Elephantine. Relevant to Jeremiah’s warning in Jer. 42:18–22. Confirms historicity of Sanballat (Neh. 2:10).
Merneptah Stela Thebes, Egypt
1896, Flinders Petrie.
1220 B.C., Egyptian Hieroglyphys.
Large black granite stela found at mortuary chapel of Pharaoh Merneptah. Only mention of ‘Israel’ in Egyptian inscriptions. Merneptah boasted he subjugated Israel in his fifth year (1220 B.C.). Indicates Israel was then in Canaan as established people.
Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Oxyrhynchus, Egypt
1897–1900, B.P. Grenfell with A.S. Hunt.
The centuries immediately before and after NT., Koine Greek of ‘common’ people.
Documents from trash cans of priests. Throw great light on every-day language of NT. Illustrates Mark 12:37, The common people heard Him gladly’. Note Greek was not slang, but language intelligible to ‘ordinary’ people.
Babylon, Palaces of Nebuchadnezzar and Nabopolassar, Iraq
1898–1914, Robert Koldewey.
600 B.C., Cuneiform.
Fortifications, Ishtar Gate, etc. Illuminates Dan. 4:30. Ration lists include Jehoiachin and his five sons (see 2 Kings 25:27–30).
Code of Hammurabi, Susa, Iran
1901, M.J. de Morgan.
1755 B.C., Old Akkadian.
Codified Babylonian Laws. Similarities to Moses’ law (e.g. Exodus 21:35–36) show the latter is ancient. Differences point to the ethical superiority and spiritual uniqueness of Moses’ law.
Beni Hasan tomb paintings, Beni Hasan, Egypt
1902–1904, J. Garstang. Tombs restored by P.E. Newberry in 1907.
1892 B.C., Egyptian Hieroglyphys.
39 Middle Kingdom Tombs. Tomb 3 shows 37 Semites entering Egypt depicting their dress, musical instruments, weapons, etc.
BSP 12:1-2 (Winter-Spring 1983) p. 52
Sumerian King List, Kish, Iraq
1906, fragments found. Langdon published tablets in 1923.
Between 2256 and 2000 B.C., during reign of Utu-hegal of Uruk: Cuneiform.
Tells of eight ante-diluvian rulers who ruled over lower Mesopotamian cities for vast periods of time. Ages of long-living men of Genesis were conservative by comparison! ‘Before the flood’ shows literal acceptance of the flood.
Hittite Documents, Boghazkoy (ancient Hattusah), Turkey
1906–7 and 1911–12, Hugo Winckler (see also under 1950–1963 with Kurt Bittel).
16th century B.C., Hittite Cuneiform.
Epic of Gilgamesh, myths, historical texts, law code, plus a peace treaty. New light on Hittites about patriarchal times (Genesis 23). Similarities to Moses, especially legal covenant forms.
Gezer Calendar, Gezer, Israel
1908, R.A.S. Macalister.
10th century B.C., Hebrew.
Records agricultural seasons on schoolboy text. Old Hebrew script, and agricultural practices in Solomon’s time.
Cyrenius, Syrian Official; Antioch of Pisidia and nearby Hissardi
1912, Sir William Ramsay.
10-7 B.C.
Shows Cyrenius was twice a ruling Syrian official. (Other writings on papyrus show this ‘poll-tax’ took place very 14 years, commencing in reign of Caesar Augustus.) (See Luke 2:1ff.)
Ur, the city, and the Royal death pits, (Tell-el-Muquiyar), Iraq
1922–1934 (earlier excavation of city by J.E. Taylor, 1854), C. Leonard Woolley.
2500 B.C., Cuneiform tablets.
Gold and silver jewelry, lyres, mathematical and medical documents, etc., showing the advanced state of the culture at Ur. See Josh. 24:15 on worship by Abraham’s ancestors.
Bethshan, Israel
1925–28, Alan Rowe (others earlier).
11th century B.C.
In level V two temples, one Philistine, one Canaanite. Philistines had taken over Canaanite pantheon. Two such temples are indicated in 1 Samuel 31:10.
BSP 12:1-2 (Winter-Spring 1983) p. 53
Nuzi tablets (thousands), Nuzi, Iraq
1925–1941 — Edward Chiera 1927, 1930–32 and E.A. Speiser.
15th century B.C., Hurrian dialect of Akkadian (Old and Mid-Babylonian).
Private contracts and public records. Background of life 300 years after time of patriarchs. Despite challenges, there are important similarities to patriarchal records about marriage, inheritance rights, blessings, etc.
Ras Shamra Tablets (hundreds), Ugarit (Ras Shamra), Syria
1929–1937, C.F.A. Schaeffer.
15th century B.C., Ugaritic (Semitic).
Canaanite literary epics, dictionaries, alphabet tablet. Poetry important. Language close to Hebrew. Highlighted differences between Hebrew and Canaanite religion. Poetry throws light on some Psalms — local color.
Eshnunna Legal Code, Tell Asmar (Eshnunna), Iraq
1930–1936, Henry Frankfort.
20th century B.C., Akkadian.
Code of King Bilalama, with 60 law paragraphs. Similarities to Moses, e.g. Ex. 21:28–32 on ox goring.
City of Persepolis, in time of Darius the Great, Iran
1931 (earlier minor excavation in 1878), Ernst Herzfeld.
Approx. 500 B.C.; Persian, Eiamite, Akkadian cuneiform.
Plan of ancient city traced, palaces, public buildings — evidence of great destruction by Alexander the Great. City where Ezra was ‘Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs’ (Ezra 7:12). Confirms names of Persian kings at Ezra 4:5–7; 6:1; 7:7, 11; Neh. 2:1; 13:6; Esther 1:1–2; 10:1–3.
Khorsabad King List, Sargon’s Palace, Khorsabad, Iraq
1932–1933 (earlier excavation at this site by Botta in 1844), Edward Chiera. Published by Arno Poebel.
Early third millennium to about 600 B.C., Cuneiform.
List of Assyrian kings, plus military and political events and astronomical occurrences such as solar and lunar eclipses. From Eponym Lists such as this correlations with biblical history have been possible, especially by Prof. E.R. Thiele, First king listed
BSP 12:1-2 (Winter-Spring 1983) p. 54
is now also known from Ebla.
Mari Letters (22,000), Tell-Hariri (Mari), Syria
1933, Andre Parrot.
18th century B.C., Akkadian (Old and Mid-Babylonian).
Extensive third Millennium B.C. city-palace, archive — mainly diplomatic correspondence. Includes relatively common names such as Peleg, Nahor, Serug (Gen. 11:16, 23–24, 27). Parallels to patriarchal customs.
Lachish Ostraca, Tell ed Duweir, Israel
1933–1938, James L. Starkey.
588 B.C., cursive Phoenician.
Twenty-one letters — political and military situation just before Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem. (Only one-third legible.) Note use of fire signals (cf. Jer. 6:1). Letters 3, 4 and 6 of most interest. Lachish, Jerusalem, and Azekah mentioned. Similarities to Jer. 34:7 and 38:4.
John Rylands Papyrus, Egypt
1935, C.H. Roberts.
About 125 A.D., Greek.
Excavated many years earlier by B.P. Grenfell and sent to John Rylands Library in England. Dated to first half of second century A.D., and circulating in Egypt about 130–150 A.D. On one side of this small fragment was part of John 18:31–33 and on the other side part of John 18:37, 38 — part of trial of our Lord. Proves that John composed his Gospel earlier than 125 A.D.
Dead Sea Scrolls, Qumram, Israel
1947, Bedouin Goatherd then E.L. Sukenik, John Trever and W.F. Albright.
Second century B.C. and later, mainly Hebrew and Aramaic.
Ancient Hebrew religious writings, including fragments of every O.T. book except Esther. Confirms high fidelity of Massoretic Text of O.T. No break between Isaiah 39 and 40.
BSP 12:1-2 (Winter-Spring 1983) p. 55
Parts of O.T. in Hebrew 1, 000 years earlier than previously known. Messianic prophecies were collected.
Law Code of Lipit-Ishtar, King of Isin (seven tablets and fragments), Nippur, Iraq
1948, translated by Francis R. Steele. (Recovered by University of Pennsylvania at Nippur in 1899–1900 but not then studied.)
1864-1854 B.C., Sumerian.
Includes legal text with 38 regulations, many being similar to Hammurabi Law Code. Shows Moses’ laws superior to law-givers preceding him, and critical argument that Moses’ law is ‘too early’ is nonsense.
Hittite Documents (10,000), Boghazkoy (Ancient Hattusah), Turkey
1954–1963, Kurt Bittel (see earlier, 1906–7 and 1911–12, Hugo Winckler).
16th century B.C., Cuneiform (Hittite).
Legends, myths, and a law code which gave pattern of formalities in making of covenants. Shows early existence of Hittites (see Gen. 23). Also Covenant forms as in Mosaic legislation.
Babylonian Chronicle, Babylon, Iraq
1956, Donald Wiseman.
626-594 B.C., Akkadian (Neo-Babylonian).
Four new tablets translated, including details of campaigns of Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar. Confirmations of 2 Kings 24:7, Jer. 46:2, and 2 Kings 24:1. Date of capture of Jerusalem was 15/16 March, 597 B.C.
Megiddo, Israel
1960, 1965–67. Yigael Yadin (earlier excavators include C.S. Fisher, P.L.O. Guy, and G. Loud in the 1930’s).
First millennium B.C.
Various buildings from times of Israelite kings. Same pattern of city gate as Gezer and Hazor — Solomonic blueprint, (See 1 Kings 9:15ff on store cities and chariot centers.)
BSP 12:1-2 (Winter-Spring 1983) p. 56
City of Jerusalem, area of walls near Pool of Siloam, Israel
1961–1967 (as well as earlier and later). Kathleen Kenyon and Roland de Vaux.
About 1000 B.C.
Showed that Davidic Jerusalem was larger in area than earlier thought. Wall excavated possibly shows how Nehemiah could build one in 52 days (Neh. 6:15) — built on ruins of earlier wall. Possibly explained 2 Sam. 5:8 regarding David’s men getting into the city — by the tunnel (tsinnor) as one branch could have led to INSIDE and not OUTSIDE the city.
Pontius Pilate Inscription, theater at Caesarea, Israel
1961, A. Frova.
26–36 A.D., Greek.
‘Tiberium (temple?)… Pontius Pilate, Prefect of the Judea…’ Shows exact title of Pilate. Pilate already known in documents, and now in inscription.
Ebla tablets (15,000 fragments). Tell Mardikh (Ebla), Syria
1974 to present, Paolo Matthiae.
2300 B.C., Eblaite and N.W. Semitic Cuneiform.
Social customs, legal documents, trading details with lists of towns, many biblical. Also common names such as Abraham, Ishmael, David. Earliest yet creation tablet, in some ways close to Genesis 1. Literary practices of Genesis not late after all — nor words such as ‘tehom,’ ‘deep,’ in common use at Ebla.
Copyright 1983 Dr. Clifford Wilson, 18 Pamela St., Mt. Waverley, Victoria, 3149. Australia.
Bible and Spade 12:3 (Summer 1983)